Mercurial > emacs
view etc/MOTIVATION @ 94414:d86cb59eea9f
2008-04-27 Carsten Dominik <dominik@science.uva.nl>
* org/org.el (org-html-level-start): Always have id's in HTML
(org-export-as-html): Use `org-link-protocols' to
retrieve the export form of the link.
(org-add-link-type): Final parameter renamed from PUBLISH. Better
documentation of how it is to be used. Avoid double entries for
the same link type.
(org-add-link-props): New function.
(org-modules-loaded): New variable.
(org-load-modules-maybe, org-set-modules): New function.
(org-modules): New option.
(org-mode, org-cycle, orgstruct-mode, org-run-like-in-org-mode)
(orgtbl-mode, org-store-link, org-insert-link-global)
(org-open-at-point): Call `org-load-modules-maybe'.
(org-search-view): Add more text properties.
(org-agenda-schedule, org-agenda-deadline): Allow also in
search-type agendas.
(org-search-view): Order of arguments has been changed.
Interpret prefix-arg as TODO-ONLY.
(org-agenda, org-run-agenda-series, org-agenda-manipulate-query):
Take new argument order of `org-search-view' into account.
(org-todo-only): New variable.
(org-search-syntax-table): New variable and function.
(org-search-view): Do the search with the special syntax table.
(define-obsolete-function-alias): Make work with XEmacs.
(org-add-planning-info): Use old date as default when modifying an
existing deadline or scheduled item.
(org-agenda-compute-time-span): Make argument N optional.
(org-agenda-format-date-aligned): Require `cal-iso'.
(org-agenda-list): Include week into into agenda heading, don't
list it at each date (only on Mondays).
(org-read-date-analyze): Define local variable `iso-date'.
(org-agenda-format-date-aligned): Remove dependency on
`calendar-time-from-absolute'.
(org-remember-apply-template, org-go-to-remember-target):
Interpret filenames relative to `org-directory'.
(org-complete): Silently fail when trying to complete
keywords that don't have a default value.
(org-get-current-options): Added a #+DATE: option.
(org-additional-option-like-keywords): Removed "DATE:" from the
list of additional keywords.
(org-export-as-html): Removed (current-time) as unnecessary second
argument of `format-time-string'.
(org-clock-find-position): Handle special case at end of
buffer.
(org-agenda-day-view): New argument DAY-OF-YEAR, pass it on to
`org-agenda-change-time-span'.
(org-agenda-week-view): New argument ISO-WEEK, pass it on to
`org-agenda-change-time-span'.
(org-agenda-month-view): New argument MONTH, pass it on to
`org-agenda-change-time-span'.
(org-agenda-year-view): New argument YEAR, pass it on to
`org-agenda-change-time-span'.
(org-agenda-change-time-span): New optional argument N, pass it on
to `org-agenda-compute-time-span'.
(org-agenda-compute-time-span): New argument N, interpret it by
changing the starting day.
(org-small-year-to-year): New function.
(org-scheduled-past-days): Respect
`org-scheduled-past-days'.
(org-auto-repeat-maybe): Make sure that repeating
dates are pushed into the future, and that the shift is at least
one interval, never 0.
(org-update-checkbox-count): Fix bug with checkbox
counting.
(org-add-note): New command.
(org-add-log-setup): Renamed from `org-add-log-maybe'.
(org-log-note-headings): New entry for plain notes (i.e. notes not
related to state changes or clocking).
(org-get-org-file): Check for availability of
`remember-data-file'.
(org-cached-entry-get): Allow a regexp value for
`org-use-property-inheritance'.
(org-use-property-inheritance): Allow regexp value. Fix bug in
customization type.
(org-use-tag-inheritance): Allow a list and a regexp value for
this variable.
(org-scan-tags, org-get-tags-at): Implement selective tag
inheritance.
(org-entry-get): Respect value `selective' for the INHERIT
argument.
(org-tag-inherit-p, org-property-inherit-p): New functions.
(org-agenda-format-date-aligned): Allow 10 characters for
weekday, to acomodate German locale.
(org-add-archive-files): New function.
(org-agenda-files): New argument `ext', to
get archive files as well.
(org-tbl-menu): Protect the use of variables that
are only available when org-table.el gets loaded.
(org-read-agenda-file-list): Error if `org-agenda-files' is a
single directory.
(org-open-file): Allow a batch process to trigger
waiting after executing a system command.
(org-store-link): Link to headline when there is not
target and no region in an org-mode buffer when creating a link.
(org-link-types-re): New variable.
(org-make-link-regexps): Compute `org-link-types-re'.
(org-make-link-description-function): New option.
(org-agenda-date, org-agenda-date-weekend): New faces.
(org-archive-sibling-heading): New option.
(org-archive-to-archive-sibling): New function.
(org-iswitchb): New command.
(org-buffer-list): New function.
(org-agenda-columns): Also try the #+COLUMNS line in
the buffer associated with the entry at point (or with the first
entry in the agenda view).
(org-modules): Add entry for org-bibtex.el.
(org-completion-fallback-command): Moved into `org-completion'
group.
(org-clock-heading-function): Moved to `org-progress' group.
(org-auto-repeat-maybe): Make sure that a note can
be enforces if `org-log-repeat' is `note'.
(org-modules): Allow additional symbols for external
packages.
(org-ctrl-c-ctrl-c): Allow for `org-clock-overlays' to be
undefined.
(org-clock-goto): Hide drawers after showing an
entry with `org-clock-goto.'
(org-shiftup, org-shiftdown, org-shiftright, org-shiftleft): Try
also a clocktable block shift.
(org-clocktable-try-shift): New function.
(org-columns-hscoll-title): New function.
(org-columns-previous-hscroll): New variable.
(org-columns-full-header-line-format): New variable.
(org-columns-display-here-title, org-columns-remove-overlays):
Install `org-columns-hscoll-title' in post-command-hook.
* org/org.el: Split into many small files.
* org/org-agenda.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-archive.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-bbdb.el: New file.
* org/org-bibtex.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-clock.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-colview.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-compat.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-exp.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-faces.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-gnus.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-info.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-infojs.el: New file.
* org/org-irc.el: New file.
* org/org-macs.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-mew.el: New file.
* org/org-mhe.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-publish.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-remember.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-rmail.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-table.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-vm.el: New file, split off from org.el.
* org/org-wl.el: New file, split off from org.el.
2008-04-27 Jason Riedy <jason@acm.org>
* lisp/org-table.el (orgtbl-to-generic): Add a :remove-nil-lines
parameter that supresses lines that evaluate to NIL.
(orgtbl-get-fmt): New inline function for
picking apart formats that may be lists.
(orgtbl-apply-fmt): New inline function for applying formats that
may be functions.
(orgtbl-eval-str): New inline function for strings that may be
functions.
(orgtbl-format-line, orgtbl-to-generic): Use and document.
(orgtbl-to-latex, orgtbl-to-texinfo): Document.
(*orgtbl-llfmt*, *orgtbl-llstart*)
(*orgtbl-llend*): Dynamic variables for last-line formatting.
(orgtbl-format-section): Shift formatting to support detecting the
last line and formatting it specially.
(orgtbl-to-generic): Document :ll* formats. Set to the non-ll
formats unless overridden.
(orgtbl-to-latex): Suggest using :llend to suppress the final \\.
(*orgtbl-table*, *orgtbl-rtn*): Dynamically
bound variables to hold the input collection of lines and output
formatted text.
(*orgtbl-hline*, *orgtbl-sep*, *orgtbl-fmt*, *orgtbl-efmt*,
(*orgtbl-lfmt*, *orgtbl-lstart*, *orgtbl-lend*): Dynamically bound
format parameters.
(orgtbl-format-line): New function encapsulating formatting for a
single line.
(orgtbl-format-section): Similar for each section. Rebinding the
dynamic vars customizes the formatting for each section.
(orgtbl-to-generic): Use orgtbl-format-line and
orgtbl-format-section.
(org-get-param): Now unused, so delete.
(orgtbl-gather-send-defs): New function to
gather all the SEND definitions before a table.
(orgtbl-send-replace-tbl): New function to find the RECEIVE
corresponding to the current name.
(orgtbl-send-table): Use the previous two functions and implement
multiple destinations for each table.
* doc/org.texi (A LaTeX example): Note that fmt may be a
one-argument function, and efmt may be a two-argument function.
(Radio tables): Document multiple destinations.
2008-04-27 Carsten Dominik <dominik@science.uva.nl>
* org/org-agenda.el (org-add-to-diary-list): New function.
(org-prefix-has-effort): New variable.
(org-sort-agenda-noeffort-is-high): New option.
(org-agenda-columns-show-summaries)
(org-agenda-columns-compute-summary-properties): New options.
(org-format-agenda-item): Compute the duration of the item.
(org-agenda-weekend-days): New variable.
(org-agenda-list, org-timeline): Use the proper faces for dates in
the agenda and timeline buffers.
(org-agenda-archive-to-archive-sibling): New command.
(org-agenda-start-with-clockreport-mode): New option.
(org-agenda-clockreport-parameter-plist): New option.
(org-agenda-clocktable-mode): New variable.
(org-agenda-deadline-leaders): Allow a function value for the
deadline leader.
(org-agenda-get-deadlines): Deal with new function value.
* lisp/org-clock.el (org-clock): New customization group.
(org-clock-into-drawer, org-clock-out-when-done)
(org-clock-in-switch-to-state, org-clock-heading-function): Moved
into the new group.
(org-clock-out-remove-zero-time-clocks): New option.
(org-clock-out): Use `org-clock-out-remove-zero-time-clocks'.
(org-dblock-write:clocktable): Allow a Lisp form for the scope
parameter.
(org-dblock-write:clocktable): Fixed bug with total time
calculation.
(org-dblock-write:clocktable): Request the unrestricted list of
files.
(org-get-clocktable): New function.
(org-dblock-write:clocktable): Make sure :tstart and :tend can not
only be strings but also integers (an absolute day number) and
lists (m d y).
* org/org-colview.el (org-columns-next-allowed-value)
(org-columns-edit-value): Limit the effort for updatig in the
agenda to recomputing a single file.
(org-columns-compute): Only write property value if it has
changed. This avoids raising the buffer-change-flag
unnecessarily.
(org-agenda-colview-summarize)
(org-agenda-colview-compute): New functions.
(org-agenda-columns): Call `org-agenda-colview-summarize'.
* org/org-exp.el (org-export-run-in-background): New option.
(org-export-icalendar): Allow a batch process to trigger waiting
after executing a system command.
(org-export-preprocess-string): Renamed-from
`org-cleaned-string-for-export'.
(org-export-html-style): Made target class look like normal text.
(org-export-as-html): Make use of the better proprocessing in
`org-cleaned-string-for-export'.
(org-cleaned-string-for-export): Better treatment of heuristic
targets, many more internal links will now work in HTML export.
(org-get-current-options): Incorporate LINK_UP, LINK_HOME, and
INFOJS.
(org-export-inbuffer-options-extra): New variable.
(org-export-options-filters): New hook.
(org-infile-export-plist): Find also the settings keywords in
`org-export-inbuffer-options-extra'.
(org-infile-export-plist): Allow multiple #+OPTIONS lines and
multiple #+INFOJS_OPT lines.
(org-export-html-handle-js-options): New function.
(org-export-html-infojs-setup): New option.
(org-export-as-html): Call `org-export-html-handle-js-options'.
Add autoload to all entry points.
(org-skip-comments): Function removed.
* org/org-table.el (org-table-make-reference): Extra parenthesis
around single fields, to make sure that algebraic formulas get
correctly interpreted by calc.
(org-table-current-column): No longer interactive.
* org/org-export-latex.el (org-export-latex-preprocess): Renamed
from `org-export-latex-cleaned-string'.
2008-04-27 Bastien Guerry <bzg@altern.org>
* org/org-publish.el (org-publish-get-base-files-1): New function.
(org-publish-get-base-files): Use it.
(org-publish-temp-files): New variable.
Don't require 'dired-aux anymore.
(org-publish-initial-buffer): New variable.
(org-publish-org-to, org-publish): Use it.
(org-publish-get-base-files-1): Bug fix: get
the proper list of files when recursing thru a directory.
(org-publish-get-base-files): Use the :exclude property to skip
both files and directories.
author | Carsten Dominik <dominik@science.uva.nl> |
---|---|
date | Sun, 27 Apr 2008 18:33:39 +0000 |
parents | 3681678d3d86 |
children |
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STUDIES FIND REWARD OFTEN NO MOTIVATOR Creativity and intrinsic interest diminish if task is done for gain By Alfie Kohn Special to the Boston Globe [reprinted with permission of the author from the Monday 19 January 1987 Boston Globe] Verbatim copying and distribution is permitted in any medium provided this notice is preserved. In the laboratory, rats get Rice Krispies. In the classroom the top students get A's, and in the factory or office the best workers get raises. It's an article of faith for most of us that rewards promote better performance. But a growing body of research suggests that this law is not nearly as ironclad as was once thought. Psychologists have been finding that rewards can lower performance levels, especially when the performance involves creativity. A related series of studies shows that intrinsic interest in a task - the sense that something is worth doing for its own sake - typically declines when someone is rewarded for doing it. If a reward - money, awards, praise, or winning a contest - comes to be seen as the reason one is engaging in an activity, that activity will be viewed as less enjoyable in its own right. With the exception of some behaviorists who doubt the very existence of intrinsic motivation, these conclusions are now widely accepted among psychologists. Taken together, they suggest we may unwittingly be squelching interest and discouraging innovation among workers, students and artists. The recognition that rewards can have counter-productive effects is based on a variety of studies, which have come up with such findings as these: Young children who are rewarded for drawing are less likely to draw on their own that are children who draw just for the fun of it. Teenagers offered rewards for playing word games enjoy the games less and do not do as well as those who play with no rewards. Employees who are praised for meeting a manager's expectations suffer a drop in motivation. Much of the research on creativity and motivation has been performed by Theresa Amabile, associate professor of psychology at Brandeis University. In a paper published early last year on her most recent study, she reported on experiments involving elementary school and college students. Both groups were asked to make "silly" collages. The young children were also asked to invent stories. The least-creative projects, as rated by several teachers, were done by those students who had contracted for rewards. "It may be that commissioned work will, in general, be less creative than work that is done out of pure interest," Amabile said. In 1985, Amabile asked 72 creative writers at Brandeis and at Boston University to write poetry. Some students then were given a list of extrinsic (external) reasons for writing, such as impressing teachers, making money and getting into graduate school, and were asked to think about their own writing with respect to these reasons. Others were given a list of intrinsic reasons: the enjoyment of playing with words, satisfaction from self-expression, and so forth. A third group was not given any list. All were then asked to do more writing. The results were clear. Students given the extrinsic reasons not only wrote less creatively than the others, as judged by 12 independent poets, but the quality of their work dropped significantly. Rewards, Amabile says, have this destructive effect primarily with creative tasks, including higher-level problem-solving. "The more complex the activity, the more it's hurt by extrinsic reward," she said. But other research shows that artists are by no means the only ones affected. In one study, girls in the fifth and sixth grades tutored younger children much less effectively if they were promised free movie tickets for teaching well. The study, by James Gabarino, now president of Chicago's Erikson Institute for Advanced Studies in Child Development, showed that tutors working for the reward took longer to communicate ideas, got frustrated more easily, and did a poorer job in the end than those who were not rewarded. Such findings call into question the widespread belief that money is an effective and even necessary way to motivate people. They also challenge the behaviorist assumption that any activity is more likely to occur if it is rewarded. Amabile says her research "definitely refutes the notion that creativity can be operantly conditioned." But Kenneth McGraw, associate professor of psychology at the University of Mississippi, cautions that this does not mean behaviorism itself has been invalidated. "The basic principles of reinforcement and rewards certainly work, but in a restricted context" - restricted, that is, to tasks that are not especially interesting. Researchers offer several explanations for their surprising findings about rewards and performance. First, rewards encourage people to focus narrowly on a task, to do it as quickly as possible and to take few risks. "If they feel that 'this is something I have to get through to get the prize,' they're going to be less creative," Amabile said. Second, people come to see themselves as being controlled by the reward. They feel less autonomous, and this may interfere with performance. "To the extent one's experience of being self-determined is limited," said Richard Ryan, associate psychology professor at the University of Rochester, "one's creativity will be reduced as well." Finally, extrinsic rewards can erode intrinsic interest. People who see themselves as working for money, approval or competitive success find their tasks less pleasurable, and therefore do not do them as well. The last explanation reflects 15 years of work by Ryan's mentor at the University of Rochester, Edward Deci. In 1971, Deci showed that "money may work to buy off one's intrinsic motivation for an activity" on a long-term basis. Ten years later, Deci and his colleagues demonstrated that trying to best others has the same effect. Students who competed to solve a puzzle quickly were less likely than those who were not competing to keep working at it once the experiment was over. Control plays role There is general agreement, however, that not all rewards have the same effect. Offering a flat fee for participating in an experiment - similar to an hourly wage in the workplace - usually does not reduce intrinsic motivation. It is only when the rewards are based on performing a given task or doing a good job at it - analogous to piece-rate payment and bonuses, respectively - that the problem develops. The key, then, lies in how a reward is experienced. If we come to view ourselves as working to get something, we will no longer find that activity worth doing in its own right. There is an old joke that nicely illustrates the principle. An elderly man, harassed by the taunts of neighborhood children, finally devises a scheme. He offered to pay each child a dollar if they would all return Tuesday and yell their insults again. They did so eagerly and received the money, but he told them he could only pay 25 cents on Wednesday. When they returned, insulted him again and collected their quarters, he informed them that Thursday's rate would be just a penny. "Forget it," they said - and never taunted him again. Means to and end In a 1982 study, Stanford psychologist Mark L. Lepper showed that any task, no matter how enjoyable it once seemed, would be devalued if it were presented as a means rather than an end. He told a group of preschoolers they could not engage in one activity they liked until they first took part in another. Although they had enjoyed both activities equally, the children came to dislike the task that was a prerequisite for the other. It should not be surprising that when verbal feedback is experienced as controlling, the effect on motivation can be similar to that of payment. In a study of corporate employees, Ryan found that those who were told, "Good, you're doing as you /should/" were "significantly less intrinsically motivated than those who received feedback informationally." There's a difference, Ryan says, between saying, "I'm giving you this reward because I recognize the value of your work" and "You're getting this reward because you've lived up to my standards." A different but related set of problems exists in the case of creativity. Artists must make a living, of course, but Amabile emphasizes that "the negative impact on creativity of working for rewards can be minimized" by playing down the significance of these rewards and trying not to use them in a controlling way. Creative work, the research suggests, cannot be forced, but only allowed to happen. /Alfie Kohn, a Cambridge, MA writer, is the author of "No Contest: The Case Against Competition," recently published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. /