@c -*-texinfo-*-@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002,@c 2003, 2004, 2005 Free Software Foundation, Inc.@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.@setfilename ../info/variables@node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top@chapter Variables@cindex variable A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value.Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In thetext of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax forsymbols. In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are representedprimarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lispobjects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variablename, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of thesymbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use asa function name. @xref{Symbol Components}. The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textualform of the program---it is simply the read syntax for those Lispobjects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp programis written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents thevariable.@menu* Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere.* Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change.* Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily.* Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values.* Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable.* Tips for Defining:: Things you should think about when you define a variable.* Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names are known only at run time.* Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables.* Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values.* Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer.* Frame-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one frame.* Future Local Variables:: New kinds of local values we might add some day.* File Local Variables:: Handling local variable lists in files.* Variable Aliases:: Variables that are aliases for other variables.* Variables with Restricted Values:: Non-constant variables whose value can @emph{not} be an arbitrary Lisp object.@end menu@node Global Variables@section Global Variables@cindex global variable The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means thatthe variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect(at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remainsin effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces theold one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable. You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example,@example(setq x '(a b))@end example@noindentgives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that@code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of thevariable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value. Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbolby itself as an expression. Thus,@example@groupx @result{} (a b)@end group@end example@noindentassuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed. If you do set the same variable again, the new value replaces the oldone:@example@groupx @result{} (a b)@end group@group(setq x 4) @result{} 4@end group@groupx @result{} 4@end group@end example@node Constant Variables@section Variables that Never Change@vindex nil@vindex t@kindex setting-constant@cindex keyword symbol In Emacs Lisp, certain symbols normally evaluate to themselves. Theseinclude @code{nil} and @code{t}, as well as any symbol whose name startswith @samp{:} (these are called @dfn{keywords}). These symbols cannotbe rebound, nor can their values be changed. Any attempt to set or bind@code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error. Thesame is true for a keyword (a symbol whose name starts with @samp{:}),if it is interned in the standard obarray, except that setting such asymbol to itself is not an error.@example@groupnil @equiv{} 'nil @result{} nil@end group@group(setq nil 500)@error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil@end group@end example@defun keywordp object@tindex keywordpfunction returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a symbol whose namestarts with @samp{:}, interned in the standard obarray, and returns@code{nil} otherwise.@end defun@node Local Variables@section Local Variables@cindex binding local variables@cindex local variables@cindex local binding@cindex global binding Global variables have values that last until explicitly supersededwith new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values thatexist temporarily---only until a certain part of the program finishes.These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used arecalled @dfn{local variables}. For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receivenew local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let}special form explicitly establishes new local values for specifiedvariables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form.@cindex shadowing of variables Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack ofone) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over,the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that theprevious value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global andlocal values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}). If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local,this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, orprevious local values, that are shadowed. To model this behavior, wespeak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value. The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value.Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates thelocal binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes thelocal binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's valueis stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is alocal binding stores a different value into the local binding; it doesnot create a new binding. We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where(conceptually) the global value is kept.@cindex current binding A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (forexample, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such acase, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the@dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This rule is called@dfn{dynamic scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are nolocal bindings, the variable's global binding is its current binding.We sometimes call the current binding the @dfn{most-local existingbinding}, for emphasis. Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returnsthe value of its current binding. The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to createlocal bindings.@defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{}This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and thenevaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-formreturns the value of the last form in @var{forms}.Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which casethat symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form@code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} isbound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form}is omitted, @code{nil} is used.All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in theorder they appear and @emph{before} binding any of the symbols to them.Here is an example of this: @code{z} is bound to the old value of@code{y}, which is 2, not the new value of @code{y}, which is 1.@example@group(setq y 2) @result{} 2@end group@group(let ((y 1) (z y)) (list y z)) @result{} (1 2)@end group@end example@end defspec@defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{}This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable rightafter computing its local value, before computing the local value forthe next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} canreasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*}form. Compare the following example with the example above for@code{let}.@example@group(setq y 2) @result{} 2@end group@group(let* ((y 1) (z y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{y}.} (list y z)) @result{} (1 1)@end group@end example@end defspec Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create localbindings:@itemize @bullet@itemFunction calls (@pxref{Functions}).@itemMacro calls (@pxref{Macros}).@item@code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}).@end itemize Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (@pxref{Buffer-LocalVariables}) and frame-local bindings (@pxref{Frame-Local Variables}); afew variables have terminal-local bindings (@pxref{Multiple Displays}).These kinds of bindings work somewhat like ordinary local bindings, butthey are localized depending on ``where'' you are in Emacs, rather thanlocalized in time.@defvar max-specpdl-size@anchor{Definition of max-specpdl-size}@cindex variable limit error@cindex evaluation error@cindex infinite recursionThis variable defines the limit on the total number of local variablebindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Cleanups,,Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits}) that are allowed before signaling anerror (with data @code{"Variable binding depth exceedsmax-specpdl-size"}).This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one waythat Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function.@code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting.@xref{Definition of max-lisp-eval-depth,, Eval}.The default value is 600. Entry to the Lisp debugger increases thevalue, if there is little room left, to make sure the debugger itselfhas room to execute.@end defvar@node Void Variables@section When a Variable is ``Void''@kindex void-variable@cindex void variable If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, wesay that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, thesymbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try toevaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather thana value. Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol@code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as anyother object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does nothave any value. After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once moreusing @code{makunbound}.@defun makunbound symbolThis function makes the current variable binding of @var{symbol} void.Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signalthe error @code{void-variable}, unless and until you set it again.@code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}.@example@group(makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value of @code{x} void.} @result{} x@end group@groupx@error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x@end group@end exampleIf @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the mostlocal existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a voidlocal binding, since all the constructs that create local bindingscreate them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most aslong as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit fromthe construct that made it, the previous local or global binding isreexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newlyreexposed binding was void all along.@smallexample@group(setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.} @result{} 1(let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.} x)@error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x@end group@groupx ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.} @result{} 1(let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.} (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.} x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.}@error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x@end group@group(let ((x 2)) (let ((x 3)) (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.} x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.} @result{} 2@end group@end smallexample@end defun A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} isindistinguishable from one that has never received a value and hasalways been void. You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable iscurrently void.@defun boundp variable@code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void;more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns@code{nil} otherwise.@smallexample@group(boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.} @result{} nil@end group@group(let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} (boundp 'abracadabra)) @result{} t@end group@group(boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.} @result{} nil@end group@group(setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.} @result{} 5@end group@group(boundp 'abracadabra) @result{} t@end group@end smallexample@end defun@node Defining Variables@section Defining Global Variables@cindex variable definition You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variablewith a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst}or @code{defvar}. In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they informpeople who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to beused a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp systemof these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, theyprovide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and@code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions andvariables in a program. The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarilya matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether the valueshould ever change. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which avariable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar}declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization:@code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while@code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void.@ignore One would expect user option variables to be defined with@code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, thishas bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded:@code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library isloaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their initfiles, and override the default values given in the definitions. Forthis reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}.@end ignore@defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]]This special form defines @var{symbol} as a variable and can alsoinitialize and document it. The definition informs a person readingyour code that @var{symbol} is used as a variable that might be set orchanged. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to bedefined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}.If @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar}evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. But if @var{symbol}already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} is not evenevaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If @var{value}is omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case.If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer,@code{defvar} operates on the default value, which is buffer-independent,not the current (buffer-local) binding. It sets the default value ifthe default value is void. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}.When you evaluate a top-level @code{defvar} form with @kbd{C-M-x} inEmacs Lisp mode (@code{eval-defun}), a special feature of@code{eval-defun} arranges to set the variable unconditionally, withouttesting whether its value is void.If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentationfor the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one ofthe main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation isstored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. TheEmacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property.If the variable is a user option that users would want to setinteractively, you should use @samp{*} as the first character of@var{doc-string}. This lets users set the variable conveniently usingthe @code{set-variable} command. Note that you should nearly alwaysuse @code{defcustom} instead of @code{defvar} to define thesevariables, so that users can use @kbd{M-x customize} and relatedcommands to set them. @xref{Customization}.Here are some examples. This form defines @code{foo} but does notinitialize it:@example@group(defvar foo) @result{} foo@end group@end exampleThis example initializes the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and givesit a documentation string:@example@group(defvar bar 23 "The normal weight of a bar.") @result{} bar@end group@end exampleThe following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar},making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar}already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ nil)} would get an errorif it were evaluated, but since it is not evaluated, there is no error.)@example@group(defvar bar (1+ nil) "*The normal weight of a bar.") @result{} bar@end group@groupbar @result{} 23@end group@end exampleHere is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form:@example@group(defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string})@equiv{}(progn (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol})) (setq @var{symbol} @var{value})) (if '@var{doc-string} (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string})) '@var{symbol})@end group@end exampleThe @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally usedat top level in a file where its value does not matter.@end defspec@defspec defconst symbol value [doc-string]This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it.It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a standardglobal value, established here, that should not be changed by the useror by other programs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; thesymbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}.@code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value}, and sets the value of@var{symbol} to the result. If @var{symbol} does have a buffer-localbinding in the current buffer, @code{defconst} sets the default value,not the buffer-local value. (But you should not be makingbuffer-local bindings for a symbol that is defined with@code{defconst}.)Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changedby anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding).As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory.@example@group(defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.") @result{} pi@end group@group(setq pi 3) @result{} pi@end group@grouppi @result{} 3@end group@end example@end defspec@defun user-variable-p variable@cindex user optionThis function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---avariable intended to be set by the user for customization---and@code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for theinternal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.)User option variables are distinguished from other variables eitherthough being declared using @code{defcustom}@footnote{They may also bedeclared equivalently in @file{cus-start.el}.} or by the first characterof their @code{variable-documentation} property. If the property existsand is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, then the variableis a user option. Aliases of user options are also user options.@end defun@kindex variable-interactive If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property,the @code{set-variable} command uses that value to control reading thenew value for the variable. The property's value is used as if it werespecified in @code{interactive} (@pxref{Using Interactive}). However,this feature is largely obsoleted by @code{defcustom}(@pxref{Customization}). @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} specialforms are used while the variable has a local binding (made with@code{let}, or a function argument), they set the local-binding'svalue; the top-level binding is not changed. This is not what youusually want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top level ina file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make sure toload the file before making a local binding for the variable.@node Tips for Defining@section Tips for Defining Variables Robustly When you define a variable whose value is a function, or a list offunctions, use a name that ends in @samp{-function} or@samp{-functions}, respectively. There are several other variable name conventions;here is a complete list:@table @samp@item @dots{}-hookThe variable is a normal hook (@pxref{Hooks}).@item @dots{}-functionThe value is a function.@item @dots{}-functionsThe value is a list of functions.@item @dots{}-formThe value is a form (an expression).@item @dots{}-formsThe value is a list of forms (expressions).@item @dots{}-predicateThe value is a predicate---a function of one argument that returnsnon-@code{nil} for ``good'' arguments and @code{nil} for ``bad''arguments.@item @dots{}-flagThe value is significant only as to whether it is @code{nil} or not.@item @dots{}-programThe value is a program name.@item @dots{}-commandThe value is a whole shell command.@item @samp{}-switchesThe value specifies options for a command.@end table When you define a variable, always consider whether you should markit as ``risky''; see @ref{File Local Variables}. When defining and initializing a variable that holds a complicatedvalue (such as a keymap with bindings in it), it's best to put theentire computation of the value into the @code{defvar}, like this:@example(defvar my-mode-map (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) @dots{} map) @var{docstring})@end example@noindentThis method has several benefits. First, if the user quits whileloading the file, the variable is either still uninitialized orinitialized properly, never in-between. If it is still uninitialized,reloading the file will initialize it properly. Second, reloading thefile once the variable is initialized will not alter it; that isimportant if the user has run hooks to alter part of the contents (suchas, to rebind keys). Third, evaluating the @code{defvar} form with@kbd{C-M-x} @emph{will} reinitialize the map completely. Putting so much code in the @code{defvar} form has one disadvantage:it puts the documentation string far away from the line which names thevariable. Here's a safe way to avoid that:@example(defvar my-mode-map nil @var{docstring})(unless my-mode-map (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) @dots{} (setq my-mode-map map)))@end example@noindentThis has all the same advantages as putting the initialization insidethe @code{defvar}, except that you must type @kbd{C-M-x} twice, once oneach form, if you do want to reinitialize the variable. But be careful not to write the code like this:@example(defvar my-mode-map nil @var{docstring})(unless my-mode-map (setq my-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap)) (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) @dots{})@end example@noindentThis code sets the variable, then alters it, but it does so in more thanone step. If the user quits just after the @code{setq}, that leaves thevariable neither correctly initialized nor void nor @code{nil}. Oncethat happens, reloading the file will not initialize the variable; itwill remain incomplete.@node Accessing Variables@section Accessing Variable Values The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol whichnames it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify thevariable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly whatyou want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time whichvariable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}.@defun symbol-value symbolThis function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value inthe innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if ithas no local bindings.@example@group(setq abracadabra 5) @result{} 5@end group@group(setq foo 9) @result{} 9@end group@group;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}};; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.}(let ((abracadabra 'foo)) (symbol-value 'abracadabra)) @result{} foo@end group@group;; @r{Here the value of @code{abracadabra},};; @r{which is @code{foo},};; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.}(let ((abracadabra 'foo)) (symbol-value abracadabra)) @result{} 9@end group@group(symbol-value 'abracadabra) @result{} 5@end group@end exampleA @code{void-variable} error is signaled if the current binding of@var{symbol} is void.@end defun@node Setting Variables@section How to Alter a Variable Value The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the specialform @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable atrun time, use the function @code{set}.@defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{}This special form is the most common method of changing a variable'svalue. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result ofevaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existingbinding of the symbol is changed.@code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that youwrite. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The@samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.''The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}.@example@group(setq x (1+ 2)) @result{} 3@end groupx ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.} @result{} 3@group(let ((x 5)) (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.} x) @result{} 6@end groupx ; @r{The global value is unchanged.} @result{} 3@end exampleNote that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first@var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then thesecond @var{symbol} is set, and so on:@example@group(setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before} y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.} @result{} 11@end group@end example@end defspec@defun set symbol valueThis function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns@var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for@var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set.The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that isset; shadowed bindings are not affected.@example@group(set one 1)@error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one@end group@group(set 'one 1) @result{} 1@end group@group(set 'two 'one) @result{} one@end group@group(set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.} @result{} 2@end group@groupone ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.} @result{} 2(let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,} (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.} one) @result{} 3@end group@groupone @result{} 2@end group@end exampleIf @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument}error is signaled.@example(set '(x y) 'z)@error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y)@end exampleLogically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than@code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use@code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given theavailability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used;beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosingat run time which variable to set. For example, the command@code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and thensets the variable, needs to use @code{set}.@cindex CL note---@code{set} local@quotation@b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes thesymbol's ``special'' or dynamic value, ignoring any lexical bindings.In Emacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are dynamic, so @code{set}always affects the most local existing binding.@end quotation@end defun One other function for setting a variable is designed to addan element to a list if it is not already present in the list.@defun add-to-list symbol element &optional appendThis function sets the variable @var{symbol} by consing @var{element}onto the old value, if @var{element} is not already a member of thatvalue. It returns the resulting list, whether updated or not. Thevalue of @var{symbol} had better be a list already before the call.Membership is tested using @code{equal}.Normally, if @var{element} is added, it is added to the front of@var{symbol}, but if the optional argument @var{append} isnon-@code{nil}, it is added at the end.The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted; @code{add-to-list}is an ordinary function, like @code{set} and unlike @code{setq}. Quotethe argument yourself if that is what you want.@end defunHere's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-list}:@example(setq foo '(a b)) @result{} (a b)(add-to-list 'foo 'c) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.} @result{} (c a b)(add-to-list 'foo 'b) ;; @r{No effect.} @result{} (c a b)foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.} @result{} (c a b)@end example An equivalent expression for @code{(add-to-list '@var{var}@var{value})} is this:@example(or (member @var{value} @var{var}) (setq @var{var} (cons @var{value} @var{var})))@end example@defun add-to-ordered-list symbol element &optional orderThis function sets the variable @var{symbol} by inserting@var{element} into the old value, which must be a list, at theposition specified by @var{order}. If @var{element} is already amember of the list, its position in the list is adjusted accordingto @var{order}. Membership is tested using @code{eq}.This function returns the resulting list, whether updated or not.The @var{order} is typically a number (integer or float), and theelements of the list are sorted in non-decreasing numerical order.@var{order} may also be omitted or @code{nil}. Then the numeric orderof @var{element} stays unchanged if it already has one; otherwise,@var{element} has no numeric order. Elements without a numeric listorder are placed at the end of the list, in no particular order.Any other value for @var{order} removes the numeric order of @var{element}if it already has one; otherwise, it is equivalent to @code{nil}.The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted;@code{add-to-ordered-list} is an ordinary function, like @code{set}and unlike @code{setq}. Quote the argument yourself if that is whatyou want.The ordering information is stored in a hash table on @var{symbol}'s@code{list-order} property.@end defunHere's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-ordered-list}:@example(setq foo '()) @result{} nil(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'a 1) ;; @r{Add @code{a}.} @result{} (a)(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'c 3) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.} @result{} (a c)(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'b 2) ;; @r{Add @code{b}.} @result{} (a b c)(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'b 4) ;; @r{Move @code{b}.} @result{} (a c b)(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'd) ;; @r{Append @code{d}.} @result{} (a c b d)(add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'e) ;; @r{Add @code{e}}. @result{} (a c b e d)foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.} @result{} (a c b e d)@end example@node Variable Scoping@section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings A given symbol @code{foo} can have several local variable bindings,established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a globalbinding. The most recently established binding takes precedence overthe others.@cindex scope@cindex extent@cindex dynamic scoping@cindex lexical scoping Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and@dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually inthe source code the binding can be accessed. ``Indefinite scope'' meansthat any part of the program can potentially access the variablebinding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program isexecuting, the binding exists. ``Dynamic extent'' means that the bindinglasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it. The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called@dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use@dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must belocated textually within the function or block that binds the variable.@cindex CL note---special variables@quotation@b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp aredynamically scoped, like all variables in Emacs Lisp.@end quotation@menu* Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible. Comparison with other languages.* Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists.* Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping.* Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems.@end menu@node Scope@subsection Scope Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings.This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access agiven binding of a variable. Consider the following functiondefinitions:@example@group(defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.} (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.}@end group@group(defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used ``free'' in @code{user}.} (list x))@end group@end example In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in@code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because@code{user} is not textually contained within the function@code{binder}. However, in dynamically-scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user}may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in@code{binder}, depending on the circumstances:@itemize @bullet@itemIf we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all,then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from@code{binder}.@itemIf we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, then thebinding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}:@example@group(defun foo (lose) (user))@end group@end example@itemHowever, if we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder},then the binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in@code{user}:@example(defun foo (x) (user))@end example@noindentHere, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}.(The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in@code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} boundby @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}.@end itemizeEmacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations oflexical scoping are slow. In addition, every Lisp system needs to offerdynamic scoping at least as an option; if lexical scoping is the norm,there must be a way to specify dynamic scoping instead for a particularvariable. It might not be a bad thing for Emacs to offer both, butimplementing it with dynamic scoping only was much easier.@node Extent@subsection Extent @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that avariable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only whilethe form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamicextent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages,including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent. One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. Thismeans that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the formthat made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, supportthis, but Emacs Lisp does not. To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns afunction that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. Thiswould work in Common Lisp, but it does not do the job in Emacs Lisp,because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the variable @code{n}is no longer bound to the actual argument 2.@example(defun make-add (n) (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.} @result{} make-add(fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}} ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.} @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m))(add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.}@error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n@end example@cindex closures not available Some Lisp dialects have ``closures'', objects that are like functionsbut record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not haveclosures.@node Impl of Scope@subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping@cindex deep binding A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actuallyworks) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique iscalled @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems. Suppose there is a stack of bindings, which are variable-value pairs.At entry to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindingsonto the stack for the arguments or local variables created there. Wecan pop those bindings from the stack at exit from the bindingconstruct. We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top tobottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding isthe value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for thecurrent binding, then store the new value into that binding. As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as itcontinues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That iswhy we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other functioncan refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while thebindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite.@cindex shallow binding The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses atechnique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standardplace in which its current value is always found---the value cell of thesymbol. In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value inthe value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value(belonging to a previous binding) onto a stack, and storing the newlocal value in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by poppingthe old value off the stack, into the value cell. We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deepbinding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for abinding.@node Using Scoping@subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is apowerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programshard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique:@itemize @bullet@itemUse or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written closetogether in one file. Such a variable is used for communication withinone program.You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can seeall uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add useselsewhere.@itemGive the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make allappropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) whereverthat meaning is relevant. For example, the variable@code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore casewhen searching''; various search and replace functions refer to itdirectly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it.Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably whatthe effect will be.@end itemize In either case, you should define the variable with @code{defvar}.This helps other people understand your program by telling them to lookfor inter-function usage. It also avoids a warning from the bytecompiler. Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts---don'tuse short names like @code{x}.@node Buffer-Local Variables@section Buffer-Local Variables@cindex variables, buffer-local@cindex buffer-local variables Global and local variable bindings are found in most programminglanguages in one form or another. Emacs, however, also supports additional,unusual kinds of variable binding: @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, whichapply only in one buffer, and @dfn{frame-local} bindings, which apply only inone frame. Having different values for a variable in different buffersand/or frames is an important customization method. This section describes buffer-local bindings; for frame-localbindings, see the following section, @ref{Frame-Local Variables}. (A fewvariables have bindings that are local to each terminal; see@ref{Multiple Displays}.)@menu* Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts.* Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings.* Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers that don't have their own buffer-local values.@end menu@node Intro to Buffer-Local@subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with aparticular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer iscurrent; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable whilea buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding,so its other bindings are unchanged. This means that the change isvisible only in the buffer where you made it. The variable's ordinary binding, which is not associated with anyspecific buffer, is called the @dfn{default binding}. In most cases,this is the global binding. A variable can have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not inother buffers. The default binding is shared by all the buffers thatdon't have their own bindings for the variable. (This includes allnewly-created buffers.) If you set the variable in a buffer that doesnot have a buffer-local binding for it, this sets the default binding(assuming there are no frame-local bindings to complicate the matter),so the new value is visible in all the buffers that see the defaultbinding. The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to changevariables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode andLisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that onlyblank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variablebuffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, andthen setting it to the new value for that mode. @xref{Major Modes}. The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with@code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands typicallyuse. This affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (includingthose yet to be created) will continue to share the default value unlessthey are explicitly given their own buffer-local bindings.@cindex automatically buffer-local A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as@dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling@code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making thevariable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. Moreprecisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makesthe variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. Allbuffers start out by sharing the default value of the variable as usual,but setting the variable creates a buffer-local binding for the currentbuffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leavingthe default binding untouched. This means that the default value cannotbe changed with @code{setq} in any buffer; the only way to change it iswith @code{setq-default}. @strong{Warning:} When a variable has buffer-local or frame-localbindings in one or more buffers, @code{let} rebinds the binding that'scurrently in effect. For instance, if the current buffer has abuffer-local value, @code{let} temporarily rebinds that. If nobuffer-local or frame-local bindings are in effect, @code{let} rebindsthe default value. If inside the @code{let} you then change to adifferent current buffer in which a different binding is in effect,you won't see the @code{let} binding any more. And if you exit the@code{let} while still in the other buffer, you won't see theunbinding occur (though it will occur properly). Here is an exampleto illustrate:@example@group(setq foo 'g)(set-buffer "a")(make-local-variable 'foo)@end group(setq foo 'a)(let ((foo 'temp)) ;; foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{let binding in buffer @samp{a}} (set-buffer "b") ;; foo @result{} 'g ; @r{the global value since foo is not local in @samp{b}} @var{body}@dots{})@groupfoo @result{} 'g ; @r{exiting restored the local value in buffer @samp{a},} ; @r{but we don't see that in buffer @samp{b}}@end group@group(set-buffer "a") ; @r{verify the local value was restored}foo @result{} 'a@end group@end example Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access thebuffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}. When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-localvalues when you visit the file. @xref{File Variables,,, emacs, TheGNU Emacs Manual}.@node Creating Buffer-Local@subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings@deffn Command make-local-variable variableThis function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for@var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The valuereturned is @var{variable}.@c Emacs 19 featureThe buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value@var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remainsvoid.@example@group;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:}(setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.} @result{} 5@end group@group(make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.} @result{} foo@end group@groupfoo ; @r{That did not change} @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.}@end group@group(setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value} @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.}@end group@groupfoo @result{} 6@end group@group;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.}(save-excursion (set-buffer "b2") foo) @result{} 5@end group@end exampleMaking a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for thatvariable does not work reliably, unless the buffer in which you do thisis not current either on entry to or exit from the @code{let}. This isbecause @code{let} does not distinguish between different kinds ofbindings; it knows only which variable the binding was made for.If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error. Suchvariables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well. @xref{MultipleDisplays}.@strong{Warning:} do not use @code{make-local-variable} for a hookvariable. The hook variables are automatically made buffer-local asneeded if you use the @var{local} argument to @code{add-hook} or@code{remove-hook}.@end deffn@deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variableThis function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automaticallybuffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make itlocal to the current buffer at the time.A peculiar wrinkle of this feature is that binding the variable (with@code{let} or other binding constructs) does not create a buffer-localbinding for it. Only setting the variable (with @code{set} or@code{setq}), while the variable does not have a @code{let}-stylebinding that was made in the current buffer, does so.If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling thiscommand will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable}already has a default value, that value remains unchanged.Subsequently calling @code{makunbound} on @var{variable} will resultin a void buffer-local value and leave the default value unaffected.The value returned is @var{variable}.@strong{Warning:} Don't assume that you should use@code{make-variable-buffer-local} for user-option variables, simplybecause users @emph{might} want to customize them differently indifferent buffers. Users can make any variable local, when they wishto. It is better to leave the choice to them.The time to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} is when it is crucialthat no two buffers ever share the same binding. For example, when avariable is used for internal purposes in a Lisp program which dependson having separate values in separate buffers, then using@code{make-variable-buffer-local} can be the best solution.@end deffn@defun local-variable-p variable &optional bufferThis returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is buffer-local in buffer@var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise,@code{nil}.@end defun@defun local-variable-if-set-p variable &optional bufferThis returns @code{t} if @var{variable} will become buffer-local inbuffer @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer) if it isset there.@end defun@defun buffer-local-value variable bufferThis function returns the buffer-local binding of @var{variable} (asymbol) in buffer @var{buffer}. If @var{variable} does not have abuffer-local binding in buffer @var{buffer}, it returns the defaultvalue (@pxref{Default Value}) of @var{variable} instead.@end defun@defun buffer-local-variables &optional bufferThis function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables inbuffer @var{buffer}. (If @var{buffer} is omitted, the current buffer isused.) It returns an association list (@pxref{Association Lists}) inwhich each element contains one buffer-local variable and its value.However, when a variable's buffer-local binding in @var{buffer} is void,then the variable appears directly in the resulting list.@example@group(make-local-variable 'foobar)(makunbound 'foobar)(make-local-variable 'bind-me)(setq bind-me 69)@end group(setq lcl (buffer-local-variables)) ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:}@result{} ((mark-active . nil) (buffer-undo-list . nil) (mode-name . "Fundamental") @dots{}@group ;; @r{Next, non-built-in buffer-local variables.} ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and void:} foobar ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and nonvoid:} (bind-me . 69))@end group@end exampleNote that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in thislist does @emph{not} change the buffer-local values of the variables.@end defun@deffn Command kill-local-variable variableThis function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for@var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, thedefault binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this buffer. Thistypically results in a change in the value of @var{variable}, since thedefault value is usually different from the buffer-local value justeliminated.If you kill the buffer-local binding of a variable that automaticallybecomes buffer-local when set, this makes the default value visible inthe current buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that willonce again create a buffer-local binding for it.@code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}.This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill onebuffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to createbuffer-local variables interactively.@end deffn@defun kill-all-local-variablesThis function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of thecurrent buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent''. As aresult, the buffer will see the default values of most variables.This function also resets certain other information pertaining to thebuffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to thevalue of @code{(standard-syntax-table)}, the case table to@code{(standard-case-table)}, and the abbrev table to the value of@code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}.The very first thing this function does is run the normal hook@code{change-major-mode-hook} (see below).Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has theeffect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effectsof the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, thevariables that major modes set should not be marked permanent.@code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}.@end defun@defvar change-major-mode-hookThe function @code{kill-all-local-variables} runs this normal hookbefore it does anything else. This gives major modes a way to arrangefor something special to be done if the user switches to a differentmajor mode. It is also useful for buffer-specific minor modesthat should be forgotten if the user changes the major mode.For best results, make this variable buffer-local, so that it willdisappear after doing its job and will not interfere with thesubsequent major mode. @xref{Hooks}.@end defvar@c Emacs 19 feature@cindex permanent local variableA buffer-local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (asymbol) has a @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}.Permanent locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the filecame from or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents.@node Default Value@subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable@cindex default value The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is alsocalled the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is ineffect whenever neither the current buffer nor the selected frame hasits own binding for the variable. The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access andchange a variable's default value regardless of whether the currentbuffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use@code{setq-default} to change the default setting of@code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even whenyou are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value forthis variable.@c Emacs 19 feature The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set thedefault value (if they set the variable at all), rather than anybuffer-local or frame-local value.@defun default-value symbolThis function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the valuethat is seen in buffers and frames that do not have their own values forthis variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalentto @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}).@end defun@c Emacs 19 feature@defun default-boundp symbolThe function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'sdefault value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns@code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error.@code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to@code{symbol-value}.@end defun@defspec setq-default [symbol form]@dots{}This special form gives each @var{symbol} a new default value, which isthe result of evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. It does notevaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{form}. The value of the@code{setq-default} form is the value of the last @var{form}.If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is notmarked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the sameeffect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the currentbuffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as longas they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that thecurrent buffer sees.@example@group;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:}(make-local-variable 'buffer-local) @result{} buffer-local@end group@group(setq buffer-local 'value-in-foo) @result{} value-in-foo@end group@group(setq-default buffer-local 'new-default) @result{} new-default@end group@groupbuffer-local @result{} value-in-foo@end group@group(default-value 'buffer-local) @result{} new-default@end group@group;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:}buffer-local @result{} new-default@end group@group(default-value 'buffer-local) @result{} new-default@end group@group(setq buffer-local 'another-default) @result{} another-default@end group@group(default-value 'buffer-local) @result{} another-default@end group@group;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:}buffer-local @result{} value-in-foo(default-value 'buffer-local) @result{} another-default@end group@end example@end defspec@defun set-default symbol valueThis function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} isan ordinary evaluated argument.@example@group(set-default (car '(a b c)) 23) @result{} 23@end group@group(default-value 'a) @result{} 23@end group@end example@end defun@node Frame-Local Variables@section Frame-Local Variables Just as variables can have buffer-local bindings, they can also haveframe-local bindings. These bindings belong to one frame, and are ineffect when that frame is selected. Frame-local bindings are actuallyframe parameters: you create a frame-local binding in a specific frameby calling @code{modify-frame-parameters} and specifying the variablename as the parameter name. To enable frame-local bindings for a certain variable, call the function@code{make-variable-frame-local}.@deffn Command make-variable-frame-local variableEnable the use of frame-local bindings for @var{variable}. This doesnot in itself create any frame-local bindings for the variable; however,if some frame already has a value for @var{variable} as a frameparameter, that value automatically becomes a frame-local binding.If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling thiscommand will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable}already has a default value, that value remains unchanged.If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error,because such variables cannot have frame-local bindings as well.@xref{Multiple Displays}. A few variables that are implementedspecially in Emacs can be buffer-local, but can never be frame-local.This command returns @var{variable}.@end deffn Buffer-local bindings take precedence over frame-local bindings. Thus,consider a variable @code{foo}: if the current buffer has a buffer-localbinding for @code{foo}, that binding is active; otherwise, if theselected frame has a frame-local binding for @code{foo}, that binding isactive; otherwise, the default binding of @code{foo} is active. Here is an example. First we prepare a few bindings for @code{foo}:@example(setq f1 (selected-frame))(make-variable-frame-local 'foo);; @r{Make a buffer-local binding for @code{foo} in @samp{b1}.}(set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1"))(make-local-variable 'foo)(setq foo '(b 1));; @r{Make a frame-local binding for @code{foo} in a new frame.};; @r{Store that frame in @code{f2}.}(setq f2 (make-frame))(modify-frame-parameters f2 '((foo . (f 2))))@end example Now we examine @code{foo} in various contexts. Whenever thebuffer @samp{b1} is current, its buffer-local binding is in effect,regardless of the selected frame:@example(select-frame f1)(set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1"))foo @result{} (b 1)(select-frame f2)(set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1"))foo @result{} (b 1)@end example@noindentOtherwise, the frame gets a chance to provide the binding; when frame@code{f2} is selected, its frame-local binding is in effect:@example(select-frame f2)(set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*"))foo @result{} (f 2)@end example@noindentWhen neither the current buffer nor the selected frame providesa binding, the default binding is used:@example(select-frame f1)(set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*"))foo @result{} nil@end example@noindentWhen the active binding of a variable is a frame-local binding, settingthe variable changes that binding. You can observe the result with@code{frame-parameters}:@example(select-frame f2)(set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*"))(setq foo 'nobody)(assq 'foo (frame-parameters f2)) @result{} (foo . nobody)@end example@node Future Local Variables@section Possible Future Local Variables We have considered the idea of bindings that are local to a categoryof frames---for example, all color frames, or all frames with darkbackgrounds. We have not implemented them because it is not clear thatthis feature is really useful. You can get more or less the sameresults by adding a function to @code{after-make-frame-functions}, set up todefine a particular frame parameter according to the appropriateconditions for each frame. It would also be possible to implement window-local bindings. Wedon't know of many situations where they would be useful, and it seemsthat indirect buffers (@pxref{Indirect Buffers}) with buffer-localbindings offer a way to handle these situations more robustly. If sufficient application is found for either of these two kinds oflocal bindings, we will provide it in a subsequent Emacs version.@node File Local Variables@section File Local Variables This section describes the functions and variables that affectprocessing of file local variables. @xref{File variables, ,Local Variables in Files, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}, for basicinformation about file local variables.@defopt enable-local-variablesThis variable controls whether to process file local variables. Avalue of @code{t} means process them unconditionally; @code{nil} meansignore them; anything else means ask the user what to do for eachfile. The default value is @code{t}.@end defopt@defun hack-local-variables &optional mode-onlyThis function parses, and binds or evaluates as appropriate, any localvariables specified by the contents of the current buffer. The variable@code{enable-local-variables} has its effect here. However, thisfunction does not look for the @samp{mode:} local variable in the@w{@samp{-*-}} line. @code{set-auto-mode} does that, also taking@code{enable-local-variables} into account (@pxref{Auto Major Mode}).If the optional argument @var{mode-only} is non-@code{nil}, then allthis function does is return @code{t} if the @w{@samp{-*-}} line orthe local variables list specifies a mode and @code{nil} otherwise.It does not set the mode nor any other file local variable.@end defun If a file local variable could specify a function that wouldbe called later, or an expression that would be executed later, simplyvisiting a file could take over your Emacs. To prevent this, Emacstakes care not to allow to set such file local variables. For one thing, any variable whose name ends in any of@samp{-command}, @samp{-frame-alist}, @samp{-function},@samp{-functions}, @samp{-hook}, @samp{-hooks}, @samp{-form},@samp{-forms}, @samp{-map}, @samp{-map-alist}, @samp{-mode-alist},@samp{-program}, or @samp{-predicate} cannot be given a file localvalue. In general, you should use such a name whenever it isappropriate for the variable's meaning. The variables@samp{font-lock-keywords}, @samp{font-lock-keywords} followed by adigit, and @samp{font-lock-syntactic-keywords} cannot be given filelocal values either. These rules can be overridden by giving thevariable's name a non-@code{nil} @code{safe-local-variable} property.If one gives it a @code{safe-local-variable} property of @code{t},then one can give the variable any file local value. One can alsogive any symbol, including the above, a @code{safe-local-variable}property that is a function taking exactly one argument. In thatcase, giving a variable with that name a file local value is onlyallowed if the function returns non-@code{nil} when called with thatvalue as argument. In addition, any variable whose name has a non-@code{nil}@code{risky-local-variable} property is also ignored. So are allvariables listed in @code{ignored-local-variables}:@defvar ignored-local-variablesThis variable holds a list of variables that should not be given localvalues by files. Any value specified for one of these variables isignored.@end defvar@defun risky-local-variable-p sym &optional valIf @var{val} is non-@code{nil}, returns non-@code{nil} if giving@var{sym} a file local value of @var{val} would be risky, for any ofthe reasons stated above. If @var{val} is @code{nil} or omitted, onlyreturns @code{nil} if @var{sym} can be safely assigned any file localvalue whatsoever.@end defun The @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' is also a potential loophole, so Emacsnormally asks for confirmation before handling it.@defopt enable-local-evalThis variable controls processing of @samp{Eval:} in @samp{-*-} linesor local variableslists in files being visited. A value of @code{t} means process themunconditionally; @code{nil} means ignore them; anything else means askthe user what to do for each file. The default value is @code{maybe}.@end defopt Text properties are also potential loopholes, since their valuescould include functions to call. So Emacs discards all textproperties from string values specified for file local variables.@node Variable Aliases@section Variable Aliases It is sometimes useful to make two variables synonyms, so that bothvariables always have the same value, and changing either one alsochanges the other. Whenever you change the name of avariable---either because you realize its old name was not wellchosen, or because its meaning has partly changed---it can be usefulto keep the old name as an @emph{alias} of the new one forcompatibility. You can do this with @code{defvaralias}.@defun defvaralias new-alias base-variable &optional docstringThis function defines the symbol @var{new-alias} as a variable aliasfor symbol @var{base-variable}. This means that retrieving the value of@var{new-alias} returns the value of @var{base-variable}, and changing thevalue of @var{new-alias} changes the value of @var{base-variable}.If the @var{docstring} argument is non-@code{nil}, it specifies thedocumentation for @var{new-alias}; otherwise, the alias gets the samedocumentation as @var{base-variable} has, if any, unless@var{base-variable} is itself an alias, in which case @var{new-alias} getsthe documentation of the variable at the end of the chain of aliases.This function returns @var{base-variable}.@end defun Variable aliases are convenient for replacing an old name for avariable with a new name. @code{make-obsolete-variable} declares thatthe old name is obsolete and therefore that it may be removed at somestage in the future.@defun make-obsolete-variable obsolete-name current-name &optional whenThis function makes the byte-compiler warn that the variable@var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, it isthe variable's new name; then the warning message says to use@var{current-name} instead of @var{obsolete-name}. If @var{current-name}is a string, this is the message and there is no replacement variable.If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when thevariable was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a releasenumber.@end defun You can make two variables synonyms and declare one obsolete at thesame time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-variable-alias}.@defmac define-obsolete-variable-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstringThis macro marks the variable @var{obsolete-name} as obsolete and alsomakes it an alias for the variable @var{current-name}. It isequivalent to the following:@example(defvaralias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring})(make-obsolete-variable @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when})@end example@end defmac@defun indirect-variable variableThis function returns the variable at the end of the chain of aliasesof @var{variable}. If @var{variable} is not a symbol, or if @var{variable} isnot defined as an alias, the function returns @var{variable}.This function signals a @code{cyclic-variable-indirection} error ifthere is a loop in the chain of symbols.@end defun@example(defvaralias 'foo 'bar)(indirect-variable 'foo) @result{} bar(indirect-variable 'bar) @result{} bar(setq bar 2)bar @result{} 2@groupfoo @result{} 2@end group(setq foo 0)bar @result{} 0foo @result{} 0@end example@node Variables with Restricted Values@section Variables with Restricted Values Ordinary Lisp variables can be assigned any value that is a validLisp object. However, certain Lisp variables are not defined in Lisp,but in C. Most of these variables are defined in the C code using@code{DEFVAR_LISP}. Like variables defined in Lisp, these can take onany value. However, some variables are defined using@code{DEFVAR_INT} or @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. @xref{Defining Lispvariables in C,, Writing Emacs Primitives}, in particular thedescription of functions of the type @code{syms_of_@var{filename}},for a brief discussion of the C implementation. Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} can only take on the values@code{nil} or @code{t}. Attempting to assign them any other valuewill set them to @code{t}:@example(let ((display-hourglass 5)) display-hourglass) @result{} t@end example@defvar byte-boolean-varsThis variable holds a list of all variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}.@end defvar Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_INT} can only take on integer values.Attempting to assign them any other value will result in an error:@example(setq window-min-height 5.0)@error{} Wrong type argument: integerp, 5.0@end example@ignore arch-tag: 5ff62c44-2b51-47bb-99d4-fea5aeec5d3e@end ignore