# HG changeset patch # User Glenn Morris # Date 1189053950 0 # Node ID 6b41ff8832d5f09a86d92dc1b06b49439f41f34f # Parent 1226c8539fa99a7efddc5f70f19c2b3151a8e41a Move here from ../../man diff -r 1226c8539fa9 -r 6b41ff8832d5 doc/emacs/files.texi --- /dev/null Thu Jan 01 00:00:00 1970 +0000 +++ b/doc/emacs/files.texi Thu Sep 06 04:45:50 2007 +0000 @@ -0,0 +1,2950 @@ +@c This is part of the Emacs manual. +@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, +@c 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. +@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions. +@node Files, Buffers, Keyboard Macros, Top +@chapter File Handling +@cindex files + + The operating system stores data permanently in named @dfn{files}, so +most of the text you edit with Emacs comes from a file and is ultimately +stored in a file. + + To edit a file, you must tell Emacs to read the file and prepare a +buffer containing a copy of the file's text. This is called +@dfn{visiting} the file. Editing commands apply directly to text in the +buffer; that is, to the copy inside Emacs. Your changes appear in the +file itself only when you @dfn{save} the buffer back into the file. + + In addition to visiting and saving files, Emacs can delete, copy, +rename, and append to files, keep multiple versions of them, and operate +on file directories. + +@menu +* File Names:: How to type and edit file-name arguments. +* Visiting:: Visiting a file prepares Emacs to edit the file. +* Saving:: Saving makes your changes permanent. +* Reverting:: Reverting cancels all the changes not saved. +@ifnottex +* Autorevert:: Auto Reverting non-file buffers. +@end ifnottex +* Auto Save:: Auto Save periodically protects against loss of data. +* File Aliases:: Handling multiple names for one file. +* Version Control:: Version control systems (RCS, CVS and SCCS). +* Directories:: Creating, deleting, and listing file directories. +* Comparing Files:: Finding where two files differ. +* Diff Mode:: Mode for editing file differences. +* Misc File Ops:: Other things you can do on files. +* Compressed Files:: Accessing compressed files. +* File Archives:: Operating on tar, zip, jar etc. archive files. +* Remote Files:: Accessing files on other sites. +* Quoted File Names:: Quoting special characters in file names. +* File Name Cache:: Completion against a list of files you often use. +* File Conveniences:: Convenience Features for Finding Files. +* Filesets:: Handling sets of files. +@end menu + +@node File Names +@section File Names +@cindex file names + + Most Emacs commands that operate on a file require you to specify the +file name. (Saving and reverting are exceptions; the buffer knows which +file name to use for them.) You enter the file name using the +minibuffer (@pxref{Minibuffer}). @dfn{Completion} is available +(@pxref{Completion}) to make it easier to specify long file names. When +completing file names, Emacs ignores those whose file-name extensions +appear in the variable @code{completion-ignored-extensions}; see +@ref{Completion Options}. + + For most operations, there is a @dfn{default file name} which is used +if you type just @key{RET} to enter an empty argument. Normally the +default file name is the name of the file visited in the current buffer; +this makes it easy to operate on that file with any of the Emacs file +commands. + +@vindex default-directory + Each buffer has a default directory which is normally the same as the +directory of the file visited in that buffer. When you enter a file +name without a directory, the default directory is used. If you specify +a directory in a relative fashion, with a name that does not start with +a slash, it is interpreted with respect to the default directory. The +default directory is kept in the variable @code{default-directory}, +which has a separate value in every buffer. + +@findex cd +@findex pwd + The command @kbd{M-x pwd} displays the current buffer's default +directory, and the command @kbd{M-x cd} sets it (to a value read using +the minibuffer). A buffer's default directory changes only when the +@code{cd} command is used. A file-visiting buffer's default directory +is initialized to the directory of the file it visits. If you create +a buffer with @kbd{C-x b}, its default directory is copied from that +of the buffer that was current at the time. + + For example, if the default file name is @file{/u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks} +then the default directory is normally @file{/u/rms/gnu/}. If you +type just @samp{foo}, which does not specify a directory, it is short +for @file{/u/rms/gnu/foo}. @samp{../.login} would stand for +@file{/u/rms/.login}. @samp{new/foo} would stand for the file name +@file{/u/rms/gnu/new/foo}. + +@vindex insert-default-directory + The default directory actually appears in the minibuffer when the +minibuffer becomes active to read a file name. This serves two +purposes: it @emph{shows} you what the default is, so that you can type +a relative file name and know with certainty what it will mean, and it +allows you to @emph{edit} the default to specify a different directory. +This insertion of the default directory is inhibited if the variable +@code{insert-default-directory} is set to @code{nil}. + + Note that it is legitimate to type an absolute file name after you +enter the minibuffer, ignoring the presence of the default directory +name as part of the text. The final minibuffer contents may look +invalid, but that is not so. For example, if the minibuffer starts out +with @samp{/usr/tmp/} and you add @samp{/x1/rms/foo}, you get +@samp{/usr/tmp//x1/rms/foo}; but Emacs ignores everything through the +first slash in the double slash; the result is @samp{/x1/rms/foo}. +@xref{Minibuffer File}. + +@cindex home directory shorthand + You can use @file{~/} in a file name to mean your home directory, +or @file{~@var{user-id}/} to mean the home directory of a user whose +login name is @code{user-id}@footnote{ +On MS-Windows and MS-DOS systems, where a user doesn't have a home +directory, Emacs replaces @file{~/} with the value of the +environment variable @code{HOME}; see @ref{General Variables}. On +these systems, the @file{~@var{user-id}/} construct is supported only +for the current user, i.e., only if @var{user-id} is the current +user's login name.}. + +@cindex environment variables in file names +@cindex expansion of environment variables +@cindex @code{$} in file names + @anchor{File Names with $}@samp{$} in a file name is used to +substitute an environment variable. The environment variable name +consists of all the alphanumeric characters after the @samp{$}; +alternatively, it can be enclosed in braces after the @samp{$}. For +example, if you have used the shell command @command{export +FOO=rms/hacks} to set up an environment variable named @env{FOO}, then +you can use @file{/u/$FOO/test.c} or @file{/u/$@{FOO@}/test.c} as an +abbreviation for @file{/u/rms/hacks/test.c}. If the environment +variable is not defined, no substitution occurs: @file{/u/$notdefined} +stands for itself (assuming the environment variable @env{notdefined} +is not defined). + + Note that shell commands to set environment variables affect Emacs +only when done before Emacs is started. + + To access a file with @samp{$} in its name, if the @samp{$} causes +expansion, type @samp{$$}. This pair is converted to a single +@samp{$} at the same time as variable substitution is performed for a +single @samp{$}. Alternatively, quote the whole file name with +@samp{/:} (@pxref{Quoted File Names}). File names which begin with a +literal @samp{~} should also be quoted with @samp{/:}. + +@findex substitute-in-file-name + The Lisp function that performs the @samp{$}-substitution is called +@code{substitute-in-file-name}. The substitution is performed only on +file names read as such using the minibuffer. + + You can include non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in file names if you set the +variable @code{file-name-coding-system} to a non-@code{nil} value. +@xref{File Name Coding}. + +@node Visiting +@section Visiting Files +@cindex visiting files +@cindex open file + +@table @kbd +@item C-x C-f +Visit a file (@code{find-file}). +@item C-x C-r +Visit a file for viewing, without allowing changes to it +(@code{find-file-read-only}). +@item C-x C-v +Visit a different file instead of the one visited last +(@code{find-alternate-file}). +@item C-x 4 f +Visit a file, in another window (@code{find-file-other-window}). Don't +alter what is displayed in the selected window. +@item C-x 5 f +Visit a file, in a new frame (@code{find-file-other-frame}). Don't +alter what is displayed in the selected frame. +@item M-x find-file-literally +Visit a file with no conversion of the contents. +@end table + +@cindex files, visiting and saving +@cindex saving files + @dfn{Visiting} a file means reading its contents into an Emacs +buffer so you can edit them. Emacs makes a new buffer for each file +that you visit. We often say that this buffer ``is visiting'' that +file, or that the buffer's ``visited file'' is that file. Emacs +constructs the buffer name from the file name by throwing away the +directory, keeping just the name proper. For example, a file named +@file{/usr/rms/emacs.tex} would get a buffer named @samp{emacs.tex}. +If there is already a buffer with that name, Emacs constructs a unique +name---the normal method is to append @samp{<2>}, @samp{<3>}, and so +on, but you can select other methods (@pxref{Uniquify}). + + Each window's mode line shows the name of the buffer that is being displayed +in that window, so you can always tell what buffer you are editing. + + The changes you make with editing commands are made in the Emacs +buffer. They do not take effect in the file that you visited, or any +permanent place, until you @dfn{save} the buffer. Saving the buffer +means that Emacs writes the current contents of the buffer into its +visited file. @xref{Saving}. + +@cindex modified (buffer) + If a buffer contains changes that have not been saved, we say the +buffer is @dfn{modified}. This is important because it implies that +some changes will be lost if the buffer is not saved. The mode line +displays two stars near the left margin to indicate that the buffer is +modified. + +@kindex C-x C-f +@findex find-file + To visit a file, use the command @kbd{C-x C-f} (@code{find-file}). Follow +the command with the name of the file you wish to visit, terminated by a +@key{RET}. + + The file name is read using the minibuffer (@pxref{Minibuffer}), with +defaulting and completion in the standard manner (@pxref{File Names}). +While in the minibuffer, you can abort @kbd{C-x C-f} by typing +@kbd{C-g}. File-name completion ignores certain file names; for more +about this, see @ref{Completion Options}. + + Your confirmation that @kbd{C-x C-f} has completed successfully is +the appearance of new text on the screen and a new buffer name in the +mode line. If the specified file does not exist and you could not +create it, or exists but you can't read it, then you get an error, +with an error message displayed in the echo area. + + If you visit a file that is already in Emacs, @kbd{C-x C-f} does not make +another copy. It selects the existing buffer containing that file. +However, before doing so, it checks whether the file itself has changed +since you visited or saved it last. If the file has changed, Emacs offers +to reread it. + +@vindex large-file-warning-threshold +@cindex maximum buffer size exceeded, error message + If you try to visit a file larger than +@code{large-file-warning-threshold} (the default is 10000000, which is +about 10 megabytes), Emacs will ask you for confirmation first. You +can answer @kbd{y} to proceed with visiting the file. Note, however, +that Emacs cannot visit files that are larger than the maximum Emacs +buffer size, which is around 256 megabytes on 32-bit machines +(@pxref{Buffers}). If you try, Emacs will display an error message +saying that the maximum buffer size has been exceeded. + +@cindex file selection dialog + On graphical displays there are two additional methods for +visiting files. Firstly, when Emacs is built with a suitable GUI +toolkit, commands invoked with the mouse (by clicking on the menu bar +or tool bar) use the toolkit's standard File Selection dialog instead +of prompting for the file name in the minibuffer. On Unix and +GNU/Linux platforms, Emacs does that when built with GTK, LessTif, and +Motif toolkits; on MS-Windows and Mac, the GUI version does that by default. +For information on how to customize this, see @ref{Dialog Boxes}. + + Secondly, Emacs supports ``drag and drop''; dropping a file into an +ordinary Emacs window visits the file using that window. However, +dropping a file into a window displaying a Dired buffer moves or +copies the file into the displayed directory. For details, see +@ref{Drag and Drop}, and @ref{Misc Dired Features}. + +@cindex creating files + What if you want to create a new file? Just visit it. Emacs displays +@samp{(New file)} in the echo area, but in other respects behaves as if +you had visited an existing empty file. If you make any changes and +save them, the file is created. + + Emacs recognizes from the contents of a file which end-of-line +convention it uses to separate lines---newline (used on GNU/Linux and +on Unix), carriage-return linefeed (used on Microsoft systems), or +just carriage-return (used on the Macintosh)---and automatically +converts the contents to the normal Emacs convention, which is that +the newline character separates lines. This is a part of the general +feature of coding system conversion (@pxref{Coding Systems}), and +makes it possible to edit files imported from different operating +systems with equal convenience. If you change the text and save the +file, Emacs performs the inverse conversion, changing newlines back +into carriage-return linefeed or just carriage-return if appropriate. + +@vindex find-file-run-dired + If the file you specify is actually a directory, @kbd{C-x C-f} invokes +Dired, the Emacs directory browser, so that you can ``edit'' the contents +of the directory (@pxref{Dired}). Dired is a convenient way to view, delete, +or operate on the files in the directory. However, if the variable +@code{find-file-run-dired} is @code{nil}, then it is an error to try +to visit a directory. + + Files which are actually collections of other files, or @dfn{file +archives}, are visited in special modes which invoke a Dired-like +environment to allow operations on archive members. @xref{File +Archives}, for more about these features. + +@cindex wildcard characters in file names +@vindex find-file-wildcards + If the file name you specify contains shell-style wildcard +characters, Emacs visits all the files that match it. (On +case-insensitive filesystems, Emacs matches the wildcards disregarding +the letter case.) Wildcards include @samp{?}, @samp{*}, and +@samp{[@dots{}]} sequences. To enter the wild card @samp{?} in a file +name in the minibuffer, you need to type @kbd{C-q ?}. @xref{Quoted +File Names}, for information on how to visit a file whose name +actually contains wildcard characters. You can disable the wildcard +feature by customizing @code{find-file-wildcards}. + + If you visit a file that the operating system won't let you modify, +or that is marked read-only, Emacs makes the buffer read-only too, so +that you won't go ahead and make changes that you'll have trouble +saving afterward. You can make the buffer writable with @kbd{C-x C-q} +(@code{toggle-read-only}). @xref{Misc Buffer}. + +@kindex C-x C-r +@findex find-file-read-only + If you want to visit a file as read-only in order to protect +yourself from entering changes accidentally, visit it with the command +@kbd{C-x C-r} (@code{find-file-read-only}) instead of @kbd{C-x C-f}. + +@kindex C-x C-v +@findex find-alternate-file + If you visit a nonexistent file unintentionally (because you typed the +wrong file name), use the @kbd{C-x C-v} command +(@code{find-alternate-file}) to visit the file you really wanted. +@kbd{C-x C-v} is similar to @kbd{C-x C-f}, but it kills the current +buffer (after first offering to save it if it is modified). When +@kbd{C-x C-v} reads the file name to visit, it inserts the entire +default file name in the buffer, with point just after the directory +part; this is convenient if you made a slight error in typing the name. + +@kindex C-x 4 f +@findex find-file-other-window + @kbd{C-x 4 f} (@code{find-file-other-window}) is like @kbd{C-x C-f} +except that the buffer containing the specified file is selected in another +window. The window that was selected before @kbd{C-x 4 f} continues to +show the same buffer it was already showing. If this command is used when +only one window is being displayed, that window is split in two, with one +window showing the same buffer as before, and the other one showing the +newly requested file. @xref{Windows}. + +@kindex C-x 5 f +@findex find-file-other-frame + @kbd{C-x 5 f} (@code{find-file-other-frame}) is similar, but opens a +new frame, or makes visible any existing frame showing the file you +seek. This feature is available only when you are using a window +system. @xref{Frames}. + +@findex find-file-literally + If you wish to edit a file as a sequence of @acronym{ASCII} characters with no special +encoding or conversion, use the @kbd{M-x find-file-literally} command. +It visits a file, like @kbd{C-x C-f}, but does not do format conversion +(@pxref{Formatted Text}), character code conversion (@pxref{Coding +Systems}), or automatic uncompression (@pxref{Compressed Files}), and +does not add a final newline because of @code{require-final-newline}. +If you already have visited the same file in the usual (non-literal) +manner, this command asks you whether to visit it literally instead. + +@vindex find-file-hook +@vindex find-file-not-found-functions + Two special hook variables allow extensions to modify the operation of +visiting files. Visiting a file that does not exist runs the functions +in the list @code{find-file-not-found-functions}; this variable holds a list +of functions, and the functions are called one by one (with no +arguments) until one of them returns non-@code{nil}. This is not a +normal hook, and the name ends in @samp{-functions} rather than @samp{-hook} +to indicate that fact. + + Successful visiting of any file, whether existing or not, calls the +functions in the list @code{find-file-hook}, with no arguments. +This variable is a normal hook. In the case of a nonexistent file, the +@code{find-file-not-found-functions} are run first. @xref{Hooks}. + + There are several ways to specify automatically the major mode for +editing the file (@pxref{Choosing Modes}), and to specify local +variables defined for that file (@pxref{File Variables}). + +@node Saving +@section Saving Files + + @dfn{Saving} a buffer in Emacs means writing its contents back into the file +that was visited in the buffer. + +@menu +* Save Commands:: Commands for saving files. +* Backup:: How Emacs saves the old version of your file. +* Customize Save:: Customizing the saving of files. +* Interlocking:: How Emacs protects against simultaneous editing + of one file by two users. +* Shadowing: File Shadowing. Copying files to "shadows" automatically. +* Time Stamps:: Emacs can update time stamps on saved files. +@end menu + +@node Save Commands +@subsection Commands for Saving Files + + These are the commands that relate to saving and writing files. + +@table @kbd +@item C-x C-s +Save the current buffer in its visited file on disk (@code{save-buffer}). +@item C-x s +Save any or all buffers in their visited files (@code{save-some-buffers}). +@item M-~ +Forget that the current buffer has been changed (@code{not-modified}). +With prefix argument (@kbd{C-u}), mark the current buffer as changed. +@item C-x C-w +Save the current buffer with a specified file name (@code{write-file}). +@item M-x set-visited-file-name +Change the file name under which the current buffer will be saved. +@end table + +@kindex C-x C-s +@findex save-buffer + When you wish to save the file and make your changes permanent, type +@kbd{C-x C-s} (@code{save-buffer}). After saving is finished, @kbd{C-x C-s} +displays a message like this: + +@example +Wrote /u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks +@end example + +@noindent +If the selected buffer is not modified (no changes have been made in it +since the buffer was created or last saved), saving is not really done, +because it would have no effect. Instead, @kbd{C-x C-s} displays a message +like this in the echo area: + +@example +(No changes need to be saved) +@end example + +@kindex C-x s +@findex save-some-buffers + The command @kbd{C-x s} (@code{save-some-buffers}) offers to save any +or all modified buffers. It asks you what to do with each buffer. The +possible responses are analogous to those of @code{query-replace}: + +@table @kbd +@item y +Save this buffer and ask about the rest of the buffers. +@item n +Don't save this buffer, but ask about the rest of the buffers. +@item ! +Save this buffer and all the rest with no more questions. +@c following generates acceptable underfull hbox +@item @key{RET} +Terminate @code{save-some-buffers} without any more saving. +@item . +Save this buffer, then exit @code{save-some-buffers} without even asking +about other buffers. +@item C-r +View the buffer that you are currently being asked about. When you exit +View mode, you get back to @code{save-some-buffers}, which asks the +question again. +@item d +Diff the buffer against its corresponding file, so you can see +what changes you would be saving. +@item C-h +Display a help message about these options. +@end table + + @kbd{C-x C-c}, the key sequence to exit Emacs, invokes +@code{save-some-buffers} and therefore asks the same questions. + +@kindex M-~ +@findex not-modified + If you have changed a buffer but you do not want to save the changes, +you should take some action to prevent it. Otherwise, each time you use +@kbd{C-x s} or @kbd{C-x C-c}, you are liable to save this buffer by +mistake. One thing you can do is type @kbd{M-~} (@code{not-modified}), +which clears out the indication that the buffer is modified. If you do +this, none of the save commands will believe that the buffer needs to be +saved. (@samp{~} is often used as a mathematical symbol for `not'; thus +@kbd{M-~} is `not', metafied.) You could also use +@code{set-visited-file-name} (see below) to mark the buffer as visiting +a different file name, one which is not in use for anything important. +Alternatively, you can cancel all the changes made since the file was +visited or saved, by reading the text from the file again. This is +called @dfn{reverting}. @xref{Reverting}. (You could also undo all the +changes by repeating the undo command @kbd{C-x u} until you have undone +all the changes; but reverting is easier.) You can also kill the buffer. + +@findex set-visited-file-name + @kbd{M-x set-visited-file-name} alters the name of the file that the +current buffer is visiting. It reads the new file name using the +minibuffer. Then it marks the buffer as visiting that file name, and +changes the buffer name correspondingly. @code{set-visited-file-name} +does not save the buffer in the newly visited file; it just alters the +records inside Emacs in case you do save later. It also marks the +buffer as ``modified'' so that @kbd{C-x C-s} in that buffer +@emph{will} save. + +@kindex C-x C-w +@findex write-file + If you wish to mark the buffer as visiting a different file and save it +right away, use @kbd{C-x C-w} (@code{write-file}). It is +equivalent to @code{set-visited-file-name} followed by @kbd{C-x C-s} +(except that @kbd{C-x C-w} asks for confirmation if the file exists). +@kbd{C-x C-s} used on a buffer that is not visiting a file has the +same effect as @kbd{C-x C-w}; that is, it reads a file name, marks the +buffer as visiting that file, and saves it there. The default file name in +a buffer that is not visiting a file is made by combining the buffer name +with the buffer's default directory (@pxref{File Names}). + + If the new file name implies a major mode, then @kbd{C-x C-w} switches +to that major mode, in most cases. The command +@code{set-visited-file-name} also does this. @xref{Choosing Modes}. + + If Emacs is about to save a file and sees that the date of the latest +version on disk does not match what Emacs last read or wrote, Emacs +notifies you of this fact, because it probably indicates a problem caused +by simultaneous editing and requires your immediate attention. +@xref{Interlocking,, Simultaneous Editing}. + +@node Backup +@subsection Backup Files +@cindex backup file +@vindex make-backup-files +@vindex vc-make-backup-files + + On most operating systems, rewriting a file automatically destroys all +record of what the file used to contain. Thus, saving a file from Emacs +throws away the old contents of the file---or it would, except that +Emacs carefully copies the old contents to another file, called the +@dfn{backup} file, before actually saving. + + For most files, the variable @code{make-backup-files} determines +whether to make backup files. On most operating systems, its default +value is @code{t}, so that Emacs does write backup files. + + For files managed by a version control system (@pxref{Version +Control}), the variable @code{vc-make-backup-files} determines whether +to make backup files. By default it is @code{nil}, since backup files +are redundant when you store all the previous versions in a version +control system. +@iftex +@xref{General VC Options,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}. +@end iftex +@ifnottex +@xref{General VC Options}. +@end ifnottex + + + At your option, Emacs can keep either a single backup for each file, +or make a series of numbered backup files for each file that you edit. + +@vindex backup-enable-predicate +@vindex temporary-file-directory +@vindex small-temporary-file-directory + The default value of the @code{backup-enable-predicate} variable +prevents backup files being written for files in the directories used +for temporary files, specified by @code{temporary-file-directory} or +@code{small-temporary-file-directory}. + + Emacs makes a backup for a file only the first time the file is saved +from one buffer. No matter how many times you save a file, its backup file +continues to contain the contents from before the file was visited. +Normally this means that the backup file contains the contents from before +the current editing session; however, if you kill the buffer and then visit +the file again, a new backup file will be made by the next save. + + You can also explicitly request making another backup file from a +buffer even though it has already been saved at least once. If you save +the buffer with @kbd{C-u C-x C-s}, the version thus saved will be made +into a backup file if you save the buffer again. @kbd{C-u C-u C-x C-s} +saves the buffer, but first makes the previous file contents into a new +backup file. @kbd{C-u C-u C-u C-x C-s} does both things: it makes a +backup from the previous contents, and arranges to make another from the +newly saved contents if you save again. + +@menu +* One or Many: Numbered Backups. Whether to make one backup file or many. +* Names: Backup Names. How backup files are named. +* Deletion: Backup Deletion. Emacs deletes excess numbered backups. +* Copying: Backup Copying. Backups can be made by copying or renaming. +@end menu + +@node Numbered Backups +@subsubsection Numbered Backups + +@vindex version-control + The choice of single backup file or multiple numbered backup files +is controlled by the variable @code{version-control}. Its possible +values are: + +@table @code +@item t +Make numbered backups. +@item nil +Make numbered backups for files that have numbered backups already. +Otherwise, make single backups. +@item never +Never make numbered backups; always make single backups. +@end table + +@noindent +The usual way to set this variable is globally, through your +@file{.emacs} file or the customization buffer. However, you can set +@code{version-control} locally in an individual buffer to control the +making of backups for that buffer's file. For example, Rmail mode +locally sets @code{version-control} to @code{never} to make sure that +there is only one backup for an Rmail file. @xref{Locals}. + +@cindex @env{VERSION_CONTROL} environment variable + If you set the environment variable @env{VERSION_CONTROL}, to tell +various GNU utilities what to do with backup files, Emacs also obeys the +environment variable by setting the Lisp variable @code{version-control} +accordingly at startup. If the environment variable's value is @samp{t} +or @samp{numbered}, then @code{version-control} becomes @code{t}; if the +value is @samp{nil} or @samp{existing}, then @code{version-control} +becomes @code{nil}; if it is @samp{never} or @samp{simple}, then +@code{version-control} becomes @code{never}. + +@node Backup Names +@subsubsection Single or Numbered Backups + + When Emacs makes a single backup file, its name is normally +constructed by appending @samp{~} to the file name being edited; thus, +the backup file for @file{eval.c} would be @file{eval.c~}. + +@vindex make-backup-file-name-function +@vindex backup-directory-alist + You can change this behavior by defining the variable +@code{make-backup-file-name-function} to a suitable function. +Alternatively you can customize the variable +@code{backup-directory-alist} to specify that files matching certain +patterns should be backed up in specific directories. + + A typical use is to add an element @code{("." . @var{dir})} to make +all backups in the directory with absolute name @var{dir}; Emacs +modifies the backup file names to avoid clashes between files with the +same names originating in different directories. Alternatively, +adding, say, @code{("." . ".~")} would make backups in the invisible +subdirectory @file{.~} of the original file's directory. Emacs +creates the directory, if necessary, to make the backup. + + If access control stops Emacs from writing backup files under the usual +names, it writes the backup file as @file{%backup%~} in your home +directory. Only one such file can exist, so only the most recently +made such backup is available. + + If you choose to have a series of numbered backup files, backup file +names contain @samp{.~}, the number, and another @samp{~} after the +original file name. Thus, the backup files of @file{eval.c} would be +called @file{eval.c.~1~}, @file{eval.c.~2~}, and so on, all the way +through names like @file{eval.c.~259~} and beyond. The variable +@code{backup-directory-alist} applies to numbered backups just as +usual. + +@node Backup Deletion +@subsubsection Automatic Deletion of Backups + + To prevent excessive consumption of disk space, Emacs can delete numbered +backup versions automatically. Generally Emacs keeps the first few backups +and the latest few backups, deleting any in between. This happens every +time a new backup is made. + +@vindex kept-old-versions +@vindex kept-new-versions + The two variables @code{kept-old-versions} and +@code{kept-new-versions} control this deletion. Their values are, +respectively, the number of oldest (lowest-numbered) backups to keep +and the number of newest (highest-numbered) ones to keep, each time a +new backup is made. The backups in the middle (excluding those oldest +and newest) are the excess middle versions---those backups are +deleted. These variables' values are used when it is time to delete +excess versions, just after a new backup version is made; the newly +made backup is included in the count in @code{kept-new-versions}. By +default, both variables are 2. + +@vindex delete-old-versions + If @code{delete-old-versions} is @code{t}, Emacs deletes the excess +backup files silently. If it is @code{nil}, the default, Emacs asks +you whether it should delete the excess backup versions. If it has +any other value, then Emacs never automatically deletes backups. + + Dired's @kbd{.} (Period) command can also be used to delete old versions. +@xref{Dired Deletion}. + +@node Backup Copying +@subsubsection Copying vs.@: Renaming + + Backup files can be made by copying the old file or by renaming it. +This makes a difference when the old file has multiple names (hard +links). If the old file is renamed into the backup file, then the +alternate names become names for the backup file. If the old file is +copied instead, then the alternate names remain names for the file +that you are editing, and the contents accessed by those names will be +the new contents. + + The method of making a backup file may also affect the file's owner +and group. If copying is used, these do not change. If renaming is used, +you become the file's owner, and the file's group becomes the default +(different operating systems have different defaults for the group). + + Having the owner change is usually a good idea, because then the owner +always shows who last edited the file. Also, the owners of the backups +show who produced those versions. Occasionally there is a file whose +owner should not change; it is a good idea for such files to contain +local variable lists to set @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} +locally (@pxref{File Variables}). + +@vindex backup-by-copying +@vindex backup-by-copying-when-linked +@vindex backup-by-copying-when-mismatch +@vindex backup-by-copying-when-privileged-mismatch +@cindex file ownership, and backup +@cindex backup, and user-id + The choice of renaming or copying is controlled by four variables. +Renaming is the default choice. If the variable +@code{backup-by-copying} is non-@code{nil}, copying is used. Otherwise, +if the variable @code{backup-by-copying-when-linked} is non-@code{nil}, +then copying is used for files that have multiple names, but renaming +may still be used when the file being edited has only one name. If the +variable @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} is non-@code{nil}, then +copying is used if renaming would cause the file's owner or group to +change. @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} is @code{t} by default +if you start Emacs as the superuser. The fourth variable, +@code{backup-by-copying-when-privileged-mismatch}, gives the highest +numeric user-id for which @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} will be +forced on. This is useful when low-numbered user-ids are assigned to +special system users, such as @code{root}, @code{bin}, @code{daemon}, +etc., which must maintain ownership of files. + + When a file is managed with a version control system (@pxref{Version +Control}), Emacs does not normally make backups in the usual way for +that file. But check-in and check-out are similar in some ways to +making backups. One unfortunate similarity is that these operations +typically break hard links, disconnecting the file name you visited from +any alternate names for the same file. This has nothing to do with +Emacs---the version control system does it. + +@node Customize Save +@subsection Customizing Saving of Files + +@vindex require-final-newline + If the value of the variable @code{require-final-newline} is +@code{t}, saving or writing a file silently puts a newline at the end +if there isn't already one there. If the value is @code{visit}, Emacs +adds a newline at the end of any file that doesn't have one, just +after it visits the file. (This marks the buffer as modified, and you +can undo it.) If the value is @code{visit-save}, that means to add +newlines both on visiting and on saving. If the value is @code{nil}, +Emacs leaves the end of the file unchanged; if it's neither @code{nil} +nor @code{t}, Emacs asks you whether to add a newline. The default is +@code{nil}. + +@vindex mode-require-final-newline + Many major modes are designed for specific kinds of files that are +always supposed to end in newlines. These major modes set the +variable @code{require-final-newline} according to +@code{mode-require-final-newline}. By setting the latter variable, +you can control how these modes handle final newlines. + +@vindex write-region-inhibit-fsync + When Emacs saves a file, it invokes the @code{fsync} system call to +force the data immediately out to disk. This is important for safety +if the system crashes or in case of power outage. However, it can be +disruptive on laptops using power saving, because it requires the disk +to spin up each time you save a file. Setting +@code{write-region-inhibit-fsync} to a non-@code{nil} value disables +this synchronization. Be careful---this means increased risk of data +loss. + +@node Interlocking +@subsection Protection against Simultaneous Editing + +@cindex file dates +@cindex simultaneous editing + Simultaneous editing occurs when two users visit the same file, both +make changes, and then both save them. If nobody were informed that +this was happening, whichever user saved first would later find that his +changes were lost. + + On some systems, Emacs notices immediately when the second user starts +to change the file, and issues an immediate warning. On all systems, +Emacs checks when you save the file, and warns if you are about to +overwrite another user's changes. You can prevent loss of the other +user's work by taking the proper corrective action instead of saving the +file. + +@findex ask-user-about-lock +@cindex locking files + When you make the first modification in an Emacs buffer that is +visiting a file, Emacs records that the file is @dfn{locked} by you. +(It does this by creating a symbolic link in the same directory with a +different name.) Emacs removes the lock when you save the changes. The +idea is that the file is locked whenever an Emacs buffer visiting it has +unsaved changes. + +@cindex collision + If you begin to modify the buffer while the visited file is locked by +someone else, this constitutes a @dfn{collision}. When Emacs detects a +collision, it asks you what to do, by calling the Lisp function +@code{ask-user-about-lock}. You can redefine this function for the sake +of customization. The standard definition of this function asks you a +question and accepts three possible answers: + +@table @kbd +@item s +Steal the lock. Whoever was already changing the file loses the lock, +and you gain the lock. +@item p +Proceed. Go ahead and edit the file despite its being locked by someone else. +@item q +Quit. This causes an error (@code{file-locked}), and the buffer +contents remain unchanged---the modification you were trying to make +does not actually take place. +@end table + + Note that locking works on the basis of a file name; if a file has +multiple names, Emacs does not realize that the two names are the same file +and cannot prevent two users from editing it simultaneously under different +names. However, basing locking on names means that Emacs can interlock the +editing of new files that will not really exist until they are saved. + + Some systems are not configured to allow Emacs to make locks, and +there are cases where lock files cannot be written. In these cases, +Emacs cannot detect trouble in advance, but it still can detect the +collision when you try to save a file and overwrite someone else's +changes. + + If Emacs or the operating system crashes, this may leave behind lock +files which are stale, so you may occasionally get warnings about +spurious collisions. When you determine that the collision is spurious, +just use @kbd{p} to tell Emacs to go ahead anyway. + + Every time Emacs saves a buffer, it first checks the last-modification +date of the existing file on disk to verify that it has not changed since the +file was last visited or saved. If the date does not match, it implies +that changes were made in the file in some other way, and these changes are +about to be lost if Emacs actually does save. To prevent this, Emacs +displays a warning message and asks for confirmation before saving. +Occasionally you will know why the file was changed and know that it does +not matter; then you can answer @kbd{yes} and proceed. Otherwise, you should +cancel the save with @kbd{C-g} and investigate the situation. + + The first thing you should do when notified that simultaneous editing +has already taken place is to list the directory with @kbd{C-u C-x C-d} +(@pxref{Directories}). This shows the file's current author. You +should attempt to contact him to warn him not to continue editing. +Often the next step is to save the contents of your Emacs buffer under a +different name, and use @code{diff} to compare the two files.@refill + +@node File Shadowing +@subsection Shadowing Files +@cindex shadow files +@cindex file shadows +@findex shadow-initialize + +@table @kbd +@item M-x shadow-initialize +Set up file shadowing. +@item M-x shadow-define-literal-group +Declare a single file to be shared between sites. +@item M-x shadow-define-regexp-group +Make all files that match each of a group of files be shared between hosts. +@item M-x shadow-define-cluster @key{RET} @var{name} @key{RET} +Define a shadow file cluster @var{name}. +@item M-x shadow-copy-files +Copy all pending shadow files. +@item M-x shadow-cancel +Cancel the instruction to shadow some files. +@end table + +You can arrange to keep identical @dfn{shadow} copies of certain files +in more than one place---possibly on different machines. To do this, +first you must set up a @dfn{shadow file group}, which is a set of +identically-named files shared between a list of sites. The file +group is permanent and applies to further Emacs sessions as well as +the current one. Once the group is set up, every time you exit Emacs, +it will copy the file you edited to the other files in its group. You +can also do the copying without exiting Emacs, by typing @kbd{M-x +shadow-copy-files}. + +To set up a shadow file group, use @kbd{M-x +shadow-define-literal-group} or @kbd{M-x shadow-define-regexp-group}. +See their documentation strings for further information. + +Before copying a file to its shadows, Emacs asks for confirmation. +You can answer ``no'' to bypass copying of this file, this time. If +you want to cancel the shadowing permanently for a certain file, use +@kbd{M-x shadow-cancel} to eliminate or change the shadow file group. + +A @dfn{shadow cluster} is a group of hosts that share directories, so +that copying to or from one of them is sufficient to update the file +on all of them. Each shadow cluster has a name, and specifies the +network address of a primary host (the one we copy files to), and a +regular expression that matches the host names of all the other hosts +in the cluster. You can define a shadow cluster with @kbd{M-x +shadow-define-cluster}. + +@node Time Stamps +@subsection Updating Time Stamps Automatically +@cindex time stamps +@cindex modification dates +@cindex locale, date format + +You can arrange to put a time stamp in a file, so that it will be updated +automatically each time you edit and save the file. The time stamp +has to be in the first eight lines of the file, and you should +insert it like this: + +@example +Time-stamp: <> +@end example + +@noindent +or like this: + +@example +Time-stamp: " " +@end example + +@findex time-stamp + Then add the hook function @code{time-stamp} to the hook +@code{before-save-hook}; that hook function will automatically update +the time stamp, inserting the current date and time when you save the +file. You can also use the command @kbd{M-x time-stamp} to update the +time stamp manually. For other customizations, see the Custom group +@code{time-stamp}. Note that non-numeric fields in the time stamp are +formatted according to your locale setting (@pxref{Environment}). + +@node Reverting +@section Reverting a Buffer +@findex revert-buffer +@cindex drastic changes +@cindex reread a file + + If you have made extensive changes to a file and then change your mind +about them, you can get rid of them by reading in the previous version +of the file. To do this, use @kbd{M-x revert-buffer}, which operates on +the current buffer. Since reverting a buffer unintentionally could lose +a lot of work, you must confirm this command with @kbd{yes}. + + @code{revert-buffer} tries to position point in such a way that, if +the file was edited only slightly, you will be at approximately the +same piece of text after reverting as before. However, if you have made +drastic changes, point may wind up in a totally different piece of text. + + Reverting marks the buffer as ``not modified'' until another change is +made. + + Some kinds of buffers whose contents reflect data bases other than files, +such as Dired buffers, can also be reverted. For them, reverting means +recalculating their contents from the appropriate data base. Buffers +created explicitly with @kbd{C-x b} cannot be reverted; @code{revert-buffer} +reports an error when asked to do so. + +@vindex revert-without-query + When you edit a file that changes automatically and frequently---for +example, a log of output from a process that continues to run---it may be +useful for Emacs to revert the file without querying you, whenever you +visit the file again with @kbd{C-x C-f}. + + To request this behavior, set the variable @code{revert-without-query} +to a list of regular expressions. When a file name matches one of these +regular expressions, @code{find-file} and @code{revert-buffer} will +revert it automatically if it has changed---provided the buffer itself +is not modified. (If you have edited the text, it would be wrong to +discard your changes.) + +@cindex Global Auto-Revert mode +@cindex mode, Global Auto-Revert +@cindex Auto-Revert mode +@cindex mode, Auto-Revert +@findex global-auto-revert-mode +@findex auto-revert-mode +@findex auto-revert-tail-mode + + You may find it useful to have Emacs revert files automatically when +they change. Three minor modes are available to do this. + + @kbd{M-x global-auto-revert-mode} enables Global Auto-Revert mode, +which periodically checks all file buffers and reverts when the +corresponding file has changed. @kbd{M-x auto-revert-mode} enables a +local version, Auto-Revert mode, which applies only to the current +buffer. + + You can use Auto-Revert mode to ``tail'' a file such as a system +log, so that changes made to that file by other programs are +continuously displayed. To do this, just move the point to the end of +the buffer, and it will stay there as the file contents change. +However, if you are sure that the file will only change by growing at +the end, use Auto-Revert Tail mode instead +(@code{auto-revert-tail-mode}). It is more efficient for this. + +@vindex auto-revert-interval + The variable @code{auto-revert-interval} controls how often to check +for a changed file. Since checking a remote file is too slow, these +modes do not check or revert remote files. + + @xref{VC Mode Line}, for Auto Revert peculiarities in buffers that +visit files under version control. + +@ifnottex +@include arevert-xtra.texi +@end ifnottex + +@node Auto Save +@section Auto-Saving: Protection Against Disasters +@cindex Auto Save mode +@cindex mode, Auto Save +@cindex crashes + + Emacs saves all the visited files from time to time (based on counting +your keystrokes) without being asked. This is called @dfn{auto-saving}. +It prevents you from losing more than a limited amount of work if the +system crashes. + + When Emacs determines that it is time for auto-saving, it considers +each buffer, and each is auto-saved if auto-saving is enabled for it +and it has been changed since the last time it was auto-saved. The +message @samp{Auto-saving...} is displayed in the echo area during +auto-saving, if any files are actually auto-saved. Errors occurring +during auto-saving are caught so that they do not interfere with the +execution of commands you have been typing. + +@menu +* Files: Auto Save Files. The file where auto-saved changes are + actually made until you save the file. +* Control: Auto Save Control. Controlling when and how often to auto-save. +* Recover:: Recovering text from auto-save files. +@end menu + +@node Auto Save Files +@subsection Auto-Save Files + + Auto-saving does not normally save in the files that you visited, because +it can be very undesirable to save a program that is in an inconsistent +state when you have made half of a planned change. Instead, auto-saving +is done in a different file called the @dfn{auto-save file}, and the +visited file is changed only when you request saving explicitly (such as +with @kbd{C-x C-s}). + + Normally, the auto-save file name is made by appending @samp{#} to the +front and rear of the visited file name. Thus, a buffer visiting file +@file{foo.c} is auto-saved in a file @file{#foo.c#}. Most buffers that +are not visiting files are auto-saved only if you request it explicitly; +when they are auto-saved, the auto-save file name is made by appending +@samp{#} to the front and rear of buffer name, then +adding digits and letters at the end for uniqueness. For +example, the @samp{*mail*} buffer in which you compose messages to be +sent might be auto-saved in a file named @file{#*mail*#704juu}. Auto-save file +names are made this way unless you reprogram parts of Emacs to do +something different (the functions @code{make-auto-save-file-name} and +@code{auto-save-file-name-p}). The file name to be used for auto-saving +in a buffer is calculated when auto-saving is turned on in that buffer. + +@cindex auto-save for remote files +@vindex auto-save-file-name-transforms + The variable @code{auto-save-file-name-transforms} allows a degree +of control over the auto-save file name. It lets you specify a series +of regular expressions and replacements to transform the auto save +file name. The default value puts the auto-save files for remote +files (@pxref{Remote Files}) into the temporary file directory on the +local machine. + + When you delete a substantial part of the text in a large buffer, auto +save turns off temporarily in that buffer. This is because if you +deleted the text unintentionally, you might find the auto-save file more +useful if it contains the deleted text. To reenable auto-saving after +this happens, save the buffer with @kbd{C-x C-s}, or use @kbd{C-u 1 M-x +auto-save-mode}. + +@vindex auto-save-visited-file-name + If you want auto-saving to be done in the visited file rather than +in a separate auto-save file, set the variable +@code{auto-save-visited-file-name} to a non-@code{nil} value. In this +mode, there is no real difference between auto-saving and explicit +saving. + +@vindex delete-auto-save-files + A buffer's auto-save file is deleted when you save the buffer in its +visited file. (You can inhibit this by setting the variable +@code{delete-auto-save-files} to @code{nil}.) Changing the visited +file name with @kbd{C-x C-w} or @code{set-visited-file-name} renames +any auto-save file to go with the new visited name. + +@node Auto Save Control +@subsection Controlling Auto-Saving + +@vindex auto-save-default +@findex auto-save-mode + Each time you visit a file, auto-saving is turned on for that file's +buffer if the variable @code{auto-save-default} is non-@code{nil} (but not +in batch mode; @pxref{Entering Emacs}). The default for this variable is +@code{t}, so auto-saving is the usual practice for file-visiting buffers. +Auto-saving can be turned on or off for any existing buffer with the +command @kbd{M-x auto-save-mode}. Like other minor mode commands, @kbd{M-x +auto-save-mode} turns auto-saving on with a positive argument, off with a +zero or negative argument; with no argument, it toggles. + +@vindex auto-save-interval + Emacs does auto-saving periodically based on counting how many characters +you have typed since the last time auto-saving was done. The variable +@code{auto-save-interval} specifies how many characters there are between +auto-saves. By default, it is 300. Emacs doesn't accept values that are +too small: if you customize @code{auto-save-interval} to a value less +than 20, Emacs will behave as if the value is 20. + +@vindex auto-save-timeout + Auto-saving also takes place when you stop typing for a while. The +variable @code{auto-save-timeout} says how many seconds Emacs should +wait before it does an auto save (and perhaps also a garbage +collection). (The actual time period is longer if the current buffer is +long; this is a heuristic which aims to keep out of your way when you +are editing long buffers, in which auto-save takes an appreciable amount +of time.) Auto-saving during idle periods accomplishes two things: +first, it makes sure all your work is saved if you go away from the +terminal for a while; second, it may avoid some auto-saving while you +are actually typing. + + Emacs also does auto-saving whenever it gets a fatal error. This +includes killing the Emacs job with a shell command such as @samp{kill +%emacs}, or disconnecting a phone line or network connection. + +@findex do-auto-save + You can request an auto-save explicitly with the command @kbd{M-x +do-auto-save}. + +@node Recover +@subsection Recovering Data from Auto-Saves + +@findex recover-file + You can use the contents of an auto-save file to recover from a loss +of data with the command @kbd{M-x recover-file @key{RET} @var{file} +@key{RET}}. This visits @var{file} and then (after your confirmation) +restores the contents from its auto-save file @file{#@var{file}#}. +You can then save with @kbd{C-x C-s} to put the recovered text into +@var{file} itself. For example, to recover file @file{foo.c} from its +auto-save file @file{#foo.c#}, do:@refill + +@example +M-x recover-file @key{RET} foo.c @key{RET} +yes @key{RET} +C-x C-s +@end example + + Before asking for confirmation, @kbd{M-x recover-file} displays a +directory listing describing the specified file and the auto-save file, +so you can compare their sizes and dates. If the auto-save file +is older, @kbd{M-x recover-file} does not offer to read it. + +@findex recover-session + If Emacs or the computer crashes, you can recover all the files you +were editing from their auto save files with the command @kbd{M-x +recover-session}. This first shows you a list of recorded interrupted +sessions. Move point to the one you choose, and type @kbd{C-c C-c}. + + Then @code{recover-session} asks about each of the files that were +being edited during that session, asking whether to recover that file. +If you answer @kbd{y}, it calls @code{recover-file}, which works in its +normal fashion. It shows the dates of the original file and its +auto-save file, and asks once again whether to recover that file. + + When @code{recover-session} is done, the files you've chosen to +recover are present in Emacs buffers. You should then save them. Only +this---saving them---updates the files themselves. + +@vindex auto-save-list-file-prefix + Emacs records information about interrupted sessions for later +recovery in files named +@file{~/.emacs.d/auto-save-list/.saves-@var{pid}-@var{hostname}}. All +of this name except the @file{@var{pid}-@var{hostname}} part comes +from the value of @code{auto-save-list-file-prefix}. You can record +sessions in a different place by customizing that variable. If you +set @code{auto-save-list-file-prefix} to @code{nil} in your +@file{.emacs} file, sessions are not recorded for recovery. + +@node File Aliases +@section File Name Aliases +@cindex symbolic links (visiting) +@cindex hard links (visiting) + + Symbolic links and hard links both make it possible for several file +names to refer to the same file. Hard links are alternate names that +refer directly to the file; all the names are equally valid, and no one +of them is preferred. By contrast, a symbolic link is a kind of defined +alias: when @file{foo} is a symbolic link to @file{bar}, you can use +either name to refer to the file, but @file{bar} is the real name, while +@file{foo} is just an alias. More complex cases occur when symbolic +links point to directories. + +@vindex find-file-existing-other-name +@vindex find-file-suppress-same-file-warnings + + Normally, if you visit a file which Emacs is already visiting under +a different name, Emacs displays a message in the echo area and uses +the existing buffer visiting that file. This can happen on systems +that support hard or symbolic links, or if you use a long file name on +a system that truncates long file names, or on a case-insensitive file +system. You can suppress the message by setting the variable +@code{find-file-suppress-same-file-warnings} to a non-@code{nil} +value. You can disable this feature entirely by setting the variable +@code{find-file-existing-other-name} to @code{nil}: then if you visit +the same file under two different names, you get a separate buffer for +each file name. + +@vindex find-file-visit-truename +@cindex truenames of files +@cindex file truenames + If the variable @code{find-file-visit-truename} is non-@code{nil}, +then the file name recorded for a buffer is the file's @dfn{truename} +(made by replacing all symbolic links with their target names), rather +than the name you specify. Setting @code{find-file-visit-truename} also +implies the effect of @code{find-file-existing-other-name}. + +@node Version Control +@section Version Control +@cindex version control + + @dfn{Version control systems} are packages that can record multiple +versions of a source file, usually storing the unchanged parts of the +file just once. Version control systems also record history information +such as the creation time of each version, who created it, and a +description of what was changed in that version. + + The Emacs version control interface is called VC. Its commands work +with different version control systems---currently, it supports CVS, +GNU Arch, RCS, Meta-CVS, Subversion, and SCCS. Of these, the GNU +project distributes CVS, GNU Arch, and RCS; we recommend that you use +either CVS or GNU Arch for your projects, and RCS for individual +files. We also have free software to replace SCCS, known as CSSC; if +you are using SCCS and don't want to make the incompatible change to +RCS or CVS, you can switch to CSSC. + + VC is enabled by default in Emacs. To disable it, set the +customizable variable @code{vc-handled-backends} to @code{nil} +@iftex +(@pxref{Customizing VC,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}). +@end iftex +@ifnottex +(@pxref{Customizing VC}). +@end ifnottex + + +@menu +* Introduction to VC:: How version control works in general. +* VC Mode Line:: How the mode line shows version control status. +* Basic VC Editing:: How to edit a file under version control. +* Old Versions:: Examining and comparing old versions. +* Secondary VC Commands:: The commands used a little less frequently. +* Branches:: Multiple lines of development. +@ifnottex +* Remote Repositories:: Efficient access to remote CVS servers. +* Snapshots:: Sets of file versions treated as a unit. +* Miscellaneous VC:: Various other commands and features of VC. +* Customizing VC:: Variables that change VC's behavior. +@end ifnottex +@end menu + +@node Introduction to VC +@subsection Introduction to Version Control + + VC allows you to use a version control system from within Emacs, +integrating the version control operations smoothly with editing. VC +provides a uniform interface to version control, so that regardless of +which version control system is in use, you can use it the same way. + + This section provides a general overview of version control, and +describes the version control systems that VC supports. You can skip +this section if you are already familiar with the version control system +you want to use. + +@menu +* Why Version Control?:: Understanding the problems it addresses +* Version Systems:: Supported version control back-end systems. +* VC Concepts:: Words and concepts related to version control. +* Types of Log File:: The per-file VC log in contrast to the ChangeLog. +@end menu + +@node Why Version Control? +@subsubsection Understanding the problems it addresses + + Version control systems provide you with three important capabilities: +reversibility, concurrency, and history. + + The most basic capability you get from a version-control system is +reversibility, the ability to back up to a saved, known-good state when +you discover that some modification you did was a mistake or a bad idea. + + Version-control systems also support concurrency, the ability to +have many people modifying the same collection of code or documents +knowing that conflicting modifications can be detected and resolved. + + Version-control systems give you the capability to attach a history +to your data, explanatory comments about the intention behind each +change to it. Even for a programmer working solo change histories +are an important aid to memory; for a multi-person project they +become a vitally important form of communication among developers. + +@node Version Systems +@subsubsection Supported Version Control Systems + +@cindex back end (version control) + VC currently works with six different version control systems or +``back ends'': CVS, GNU Arch, RCS, Meta-CVS, Subversion, and SCCS. + +@cindex CVS + CVS is a free version control system that is used for the majority +of free software projects today. It allows concurrent multi-user +development either locally or over the network. Some of its +shortcomings, corrected by newer systems such as GNU Arch, are that it +lacks atomic commits or support for renaming files. VC supports all +basic editing operations under CVS, but for some less common tasks you +still need to call CVS from the command line. Note also that before +using CVS you must set up a repository, which is a subject too complex +to treat here. + +@cindex GNU Arch +@cindex Arch + GNU Arch is a new version control system that is designed for +distributed work. It differs in many ways from old well-known +systems, such as CVS and RCS. It supports different transports for +interoperating between users, offline operations, and it has good +branching and merging features. It also supports atomic commits, and +history of file renaming and moving. VC does not support all +operations provided by GNU Arch, so you must sometimes invoke it from +the command line, or use a specialized module. + +@cindex RCS + RCS is the free version control system around which VC was initially +built. The VC commands are therefore conceptually closest to RCS. +Almost everything you can do with RCS can be done through VC. You +cannot use RCS over the network though, and it only works at the level +of individual files, rather than projects. You should use it if you +want a simple, yet reliable tool for handling individual files. + +@cindex SVN +@cindex Subversion + Subversion is a free version control system designed to be similar +to CVS but without CVS's problems. Subversion supports atomic commits, +and versions directories, symbolic links, meta-data, renames, copies, +and deletes. It can be used via http or via its own protocol. + +@cindex MCVS +@cindex Meta-CVS + Meta-CVS is another attempt to solve problems arising in CVS. It +supports directory structure versioning, improved branching and +merging, and use of symbolic links and meta-data in repositories. + +@cindex SCCS + SCCS is a proprietary but widely used version control system. In +terms of capabilities, it is the weakest of the six that VC supports. +VC compensates for certain features missing in SCCS (snapshots, for +example) by implementing them itself, but some other VC features, such +as multiple branches, are not available with SCCS. Since SCCS is +non-free, not respecting its users freedom, you should not use it; +use its free replacement CSSC instead. But you should use CSSC only +if for some reason you cannot use RCS, or one of the higher-level +systems such as CVS or GNU Arch. + +In the following, we discuss mainly RCS, SCCS and CVS. Nearly +everything said about CVS applies to GNU Arch, Subversion and Meta-CVS +as well. + +@node VC Concepts +@subsubsection Concepts of Version Control + +@cindex master file +@cindex registered file + When a file is under version control, we also say that it is +@dfn{registered} in the version control system. Each registered file +has a corresponding @dfn{master file} which represents the file's +present state plus its change history---enough to reconstruct the +current version or any earlier version. Usually the master file also +records a @dfn{log entry} for each version, describing in words what was +changed in that version. + +@cindex work file +@cindex checking out files + The file that is maintained under version control is sometimes called +the @dfn{work file} corresponding to its master file. You edit the work +file and make changes in it, as you would with an ordinary file. (With +SCCS and RCS, you must @dfn{lock} the file before you start to edit it.) +After you are done with a set of changes, you @dfn{check the file in}, +which records the changes in the master file, along with a log entry for +them. + + To go beyond these basic concepts, you will need to understand three +ways in which version-control systems can differ from each other. They +can be locking or merging; they can be file-based or changeset-based; +and they can be centralized or decentralized. VC handles all these +choices, but they lead to differing behaviors which you will need +to understand as you use it. + +@cindex locking versus merging + A version control system typically has some mechanism to coordinate +between users who want to change the same file. One method is +@dfn{locking} (analogous to the locking that Emacs uses to detect +simultaneous editing of a file, but distinct from it). In a locking +system, such as SCCS, you must @dfn{lock} a file before you start to +edit it. The other method is @dfn{merging}; the system tries to +merge your changes with other people's changes when you check them in. + + With version control locking, work files are normally read-only so +that you cannot change them. You ask the version control system to make +a work file writable for you by locking it; only one user can do +this at any given time. When you check in your changes, that unlocks +the file, making the work file read-only again. This allows other users +to lock the file to make further changes. + + By contrast, a merging system lets each user check out and modify a +work file at any time. When you check in a a file, the system will +attempt to merge your changes with any others checked into the +repository since you checked out the file. + + Both locking and merging systems can have problems when multiple users +try to modify the same file at the same time. Locking systems have +@dfn{lock conflicts}; a user may try to check a file out and be unable +to because it is locked. In merging systems, @dfn{merge conflicts} +happen when you check in a change to a file that conflicts with a change +checked in by someone else after your checkout. Both kinds of conflict +have to be resolved by human judgment and communication. + + SCCS always uses locking. RCS is lock-based by default but can be told +to operate in a merging style. CVS is merge-based by default but can +be told to operate in a locking mode. Most later version-control +systems, such as Subversion and GNU Arch, have been fundamentally +merging-based rather than locking-based. This is because experience +has shown that the merging-based approach is generally superior to +the locking one, both in convenience to developers and in minimizing +the number and severity of conflicts that actually occur. + + While it is rather unlikely that anyone will ever again build a +fundamentally locking-based rather than merging-based version-control +system in the future, merging-based version-systems sometimes have locks +retrofitted onto them for reasons having nothing to do with technology. +@footnote{Usually the control-freak instincts of managers.} For this +reason, and to support older systems still in use, VC mode supports +both locking and merging version control and tries to hide the differences +between them as much as possible. + +@cindex files versus changesets. + On SCCS, RCS, CVS, and other early version-control systems, checkins +and other operations are @dfn{file-based}; each file has its own +@dfn{master file} with its own comment- and revision history separate +from that of all other files in the system. Later systems, beginning +with Subversion, are @dfn{changeset-based}; a checkin may include +changes to several files and that change set is treated as a unit by the +system. Any comment associated with the change doesn't belong to any +one file, but is attached to the changeset itself. + + Changeset-based version control is in general both more flexible and +more powerful than file-based version control; usually, when a change to +multiple files has to be backed out, it's good to be able to easily +identify and remove all of it. + +@cindex centralized vs. decentralized + Early version-control systems were designed around a @dfn{centralized} +model in which each project has only one repository used by all +developers. SCCS, RCS, CVS, and Subversion share this kind of model. +It has two important problems. One is that a single repository is a +single point of failure---if the repository server is down all work +stops. The other is that you need to be connected live to the server to +do checkins and checkouts; if you're offline, you can't work. + + Newer version-control systems like GNU Arch are @dfn{decentralized}. +A project may have several different repositories, and these systems +support a sort of super-merge between repositories that tries to +reconcile their change histories. At the limit, each developer has +his/her own repository, and repository merges replace checkin/commit +operations. + + VC's job is to help you manage the traffic between your personal +workfiles and a repository. Whether that repository is a single master +or one of a network of peer repositories is not something VC has to care +about. Thus, the difference between a centralized and a decentralized +version-control system is invisible to VC mode. + +@iftex +(@pxref{CVS Options,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}). +@end iftex +@ifnottex +(@pxref{CVS Options}). +@end ifnottex + + +@node Types of Log File +@subsubsection Types of Log File +@cindex types of log file +@cindex log File, types of +@cindex version control log + + Projects that use a revision control system can have @emph{two} +types of log for changes. One is the per-file log maintained by the +revision control system: each time you check in a change, you must +fill out a @dfn{log entry} for the change (@pxref{Log Buffer}). This +kind of log is called the @dfn{version control log}, also the +@dfn{revision control log}, @dfn{RCS log}, or @dfn{CVS log}. + + The other kind of log is the file @file{ChangeLog} (@pxref{Change +Log}). It provides a chronological record of all changes to a large +portion of a program---typically one directory and its subdirectories. +A small program would use one @file{ChangeLog} file; a large program +may well merit a @file{ChangeLog} file in each major directory. +@xref{Change Log}. + + A project maintained with version control can use just the per-file +log, or it can use both kinds of logs. It can handle some files one +way and some files the other way. Each project has its policy, which +you should follow. + + When the policy is to use both, you typically want to write an entry +for each change just once, then put it into both logs. You can write +the entry in @file{ChangeLog}, then copy it to the log buffer when you +check in the change. Or you can write the entry in the log buffer +while checking in the change, and later use the @kbd{C-x v a} command +to copy it to @file{ChangeLog} +@iftex +(@pxref{Change Logs and VC,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}). +@end iftex +@ifnottex +(@pxref{Change Logs and VC}). +@end ifnottex + + +@node VC Mode Line +@subsection Version Control and the Mode Line + + When you visit a file that is under version control, Emacs indicates +this on the mode line. For example, @samp{RCS-1.3} says that RCS is +used for that file, and the current version is 1.3. + + The character between the back-end name and the version number +indicates the version control status of the file. @samp{-} means that +the work file is not locked (if locking is in use), or not modified (if +locking is not in use). @samp{:} indicates that the file is locked, or +that it is modified. If the file is locked by some other user (for +instance, @samp{jim}), that is displayed as @samp{RCS:jim:1.3}. + +@vindex auto-revert-check-vc-info + When Auto Revert mode (@pxref{Reverting}) reverts a buffer that is +under version control, it updates the version control information in +the mode line. However, Auto Revert mode may not properly update this +information if the version control status changes without changes to +the work file, from outside the current Emacs session. If you set +@code{auto-revert-check-vc-info} to @code{t}, Auto Revert mode updates +the version control status information every +@code{auto-revert-interval} seconds, even if the work file itself is +unchanged. The resulting CPU usage depends on the version control +system, but is usually not excessive. + +@node Basic VC Editing +@subsection Basic Editing under Version Control + + The principal VC command is an all-purpose command that performs +either locking or check-in, depending on the situation. + +@table @kbd +@itemx C-x v v +Perform the next logical version control operation on this file. +@end table + +@findex vc-next-action +@kindex C-x v v + The precise action of this command depends on the state of the file, +and whether the version control system uses locking or not. SCCS and +RCS normally use locking; CVS normally does not use locking. + +@findex vc-toggle-read-only +@kindex C-x C-q @r{(Version Control)} + As a special convenience that is particularly useful for files with +locking, you can let Emacs check a file in or out whenever you change +its read-only flag. This means, for example, that you cannot +accidentally edit a file without properly checking it out first. To +achieve this, bind the key @kbd{C-x C-q} to @kbd{vc-toggle-read-only} +in your @file{~/.emacs} file. (@xref{Init Rebinding}.) + +@menu +* VC with Locking:: RCS in its default mode, SCCS, and optionally CVS. +* Without Locking:: Without locking: default mode for CVS. +* Advanced C-x v v:: Advanced features available with a prefix argument. +* Log Buffer:: Features available in log entry buffers. +@end menu + +@node VC with Locking +@subsubsection Basic Version Control with Locking + + If locking is used for the file (as with SCCS, and RCS in its default +mode), @kbd{C-x v v} can either lock a file or check it in: + +@itemize @bullet +@item +If the file is not locked, @kbd{C-x v v} locks it, and +makes it writable so that you can change it. + +@item +If the file is locked by you, and contains changes, @kbd{C-x v v} checks +in the changes. In order to do this, it first reads the log entry +for the new version. @xref{Log Buffer}. + +@item +If the file is locked by you, but you have not changed it since you +locked it, @kbd{C-x v v} releases the lock and makes the file read-only +again. + +@item +If the file is locked by some other user, @kbd{C-x v v} asks you whether +you want to ``steal the lock'' from that user. If you say yes, the file +becomes locked by you, but a message is sent to the person who had +formerly locked the file, to inform him of what has happened. +@end itemize + + These rules also apply when you use CVS in locking mode, except +that there is no such thing as stealing a lock. + +@node Without Locking +@subsubsection Basic Version Control without Locking + + When there is no locking---the default for CVS---work files are always +writable; you do not need to do anything before you begin to edit a +file. The status indicator on the mode line is @samp{-} if the file is +unmodified; it flips to @samp{:} as soon as you save any changes in the +work file. + + Here is what @kbd{C-x v v} does when using CVS: + +@itemize @bullet +@item +If some other user has checked in changes into the master file, Emacs +asks you whether you want to merge those changes into your own work +file. You must do this before you can check in your own changes. (To +pick up any recent changes from the master file @emph{without} trying +to commit your own changes, type @kbd{C-x v m @key{RET}}.) +@xref{Merging}. + +@item +If there are no new changes in the master file, but you have made +modifications in your work file, @kbd{C-x v v} checks in your changes. +In order to do this, it first reads the log entry for the new version. +@xref{Log Buffer}. + +@item +If the file is not modified, the @kbd{C-x v v} does nothing. +@end itemize + + These rules also apply when you use RCS in the mode that does not +require locking, except that automatic merging of changes from the +master file is not implemented. Unfortunately, this means that nothing +informs you if another user has checked in changes in the same file +since you began editing it, and when this happens, his changes will be +effectively removed when you check in your version (though they will +remain in the master file, so they will not be entirely lost). You must +therefore verify that the current version is unchanged, before you +check in your changes. We hope to eliminate this risk and provide +automatic merging with RCS in a future Emacs version. + + In addition, locking is possible with RCS even in this mode, although +it is not required; @kbd{C-x v v} with an unmodified file locks the +file, just as it does with RCS in its normal (locking) mode. + +@node Advanced C-x v v +@subsubsection Advanced Control in @kbd{C-x v v} + +@cindex version number to check in/out + When you give a prefix argument to @code{vc-next-action} (@kbd{C-u +C-x v v}), it still performs the next logical version control +operation, but accepts additional arguments to specify precisely how +to do the operation. + +@itemize @bullet +@item +If the file is modified (or locked), you can specify the version +number to use for the new version that you check in. This is one way +to create a new branch (@pxref{Branches}). + +@item +If the file is not modified (and unlocked), you can specify the +version to select; this lets you start working from an older version, +or on another branch. If you do not enter any version, that takes you +to the highest version on the current branch; therefore @kbd{C-u C-x +v v @key{RET}} is a convenient way to get the latest version of a file from +the repository. + +@item +@cindex specific version control system +Instead of the version number, you can also specify the name of a +version control system. This is useful when one file is being managed +with two version control systems at the same time +@iftex +(@pxref{Local Version Control,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs +Features}). +@end iftex +@ifnottex +(@pxref{Local Version Control}). +@end ifnottex + +@end itemize + +@node Log Buffer +@subsubsection Features of the Log Entry Buffer + + When you check in changes, @kbd{C-x v v} first reads a log entry. It +pops up a buffer called @samp{*VC-Log*} for you to enter the log entry. + + Sometimes the @samp{*VC-Log*} buffer contains default text when you enter it, +typically the last log message entered. If it does, mark and point +are set around the entire contents of the buffer so that it is easy to +kill the contents of the buffer with @kbd{C-w}. + +@findex log-edit-insert-changelog + If you work by writing entries in the @file{ChangeLog} +(@pxref{Change Log}) and then commit the change under revision +control, you can generate the Log Edit text from the ChangeLog using +@kbd{C-c C-a} (@kbd{log-edit-insert-changelog}). This looks for +entries for the file(s) concerned in the top entry in the ChangeLog +and uses those paragraphs as the log text. This text is only inserted +if the top entry was made under your user name on the current date. +@iftex +@xref{Change Logs and VC,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}, +@end iftex +@ifnottex +@xref{Change Logs and VC}, +@end ifnottex +for the opposite way of working---generating ChangeLog entries from +the revision control log. + + In the @samp{*VC-Log*} buffer, @kbd{C-c C-f} (@kbd{M-x +log-edit-show-files}) shows the list of files to be committed in case +you need to check that. (This can be a list of more than one file if +you use VC Dired mode or PCL-CVS. +@iftex +@xref{VC Dired Mode,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}, +@end iftex +@ifnottex +@xref{VC Dired Mode}, +@end ifnottex +and @ref{Top, , About PCL-CVS, pcl-cvs, PCL-CVS --- The Emacs +Front-End to CVS}.) + + When you have finished editing the log message, type @kbd{C-c C-c} to +exit the buffer and commit the change. + + To abort check-in, just @strong{don't} type @kbd{C-c C-c} in that +buffer. You can switch buffers and do other editing. As long as you +don't try to check in another file, the entry you were editing remains +in the @samp{*VC-Log*} buffer, and you can go back to that buffer at any +time to complete the check-in. + + If you change several source files for the same reason, it is often +convenient to specify the same log entry for many of the files. To do +this, use the history of previous log entries. The commands @kbd{M-n}, +@kbd{M-p}, @kbd{M-s} and @kbd{M-r} for doing this work just like the +minibuffer history commands (except that these versions are used outside +the minibuffer). + +@vindex vc-log-mode-hook + Each time you check in a file, the log entry buffer is put into VC Log +mode, which involves running two hooks: @code{text-mode-hook} and +@code{vc-log-mode-hook}. @xref{Hooks}. + +@node Old Versions +@subsection Examining And Comparing Old Versions + + One of the convenient features of version control is the ability +to examine any version of a file, or compare two versions. + +@table @kbd +@item C-x v ~ @var{version} @key{RET} +Examine version @var{version} of the visited file, in a buffer of its +own. + +@item C-x v = +Compare the current buffer contents with the master version from which +you started editing. + +@item C-u C-x v = @var{file} @key{RET} @var{oldvers} @key{RET} @var{newvers} @key{RET} +Compare the specified two versions of @var{file}. + +@item C-x v g +Display the file with per-line version information and using colors. +@end table + +@findex vc-version-other-window +@kindex C-x v ~ + To examine an old version in its entirety, visit the file and then type +@kbd{C-x v ~ @var{version} @key{RET}} (@code{vc-version-other-window}). +This puts the text of version @var{version} in a file named +@file{@var{filename}.~@var{version}~}, and visits it in its own buffer +in a separate window. (In RCS, you can also select an old version +and create a branch from it. @xref{Branches}.) + +@findex vc-diff +@kindex C-x v = + It is usually more convenient to compare two versions of the file, +with the command @kbd{C-x v =} (@code{vc-diff}). Plain @kbd{C-x v =} +compares the current buffer contents (saving them in the file if +necessary) with the master version from which you started editing the +file (this is not necessarily the latest version of the file). +@kbd{C-u C-x v =}, with a numeric argument, reads a file name and two +version numbers, then compares those versions of the specified file. +Both forms display the output in a special buffer in another window. + + You can specify a checked-in version by its number; an empty input +specifies the current contents of the work file (which may be different +from all the checked-in versions). You can also specify a snapshot name +@iftex +(@pxref{Snapshots,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}) +@end iftex +@ifnottex +(@pxref{Snapshots}) +@end ifnottex +instead of one or both version numbers. + + If you supply a directory name instead of the name of a registered +file, this command compares the two specified versions of all registered +files in that directory and its subdirectories. + +@vindex vc-diff-switches +@vindex vc-rcs-diff-switches + @kbd{C-x v =} works by running a variant of the @code{diff} utility +designed to work with the version control system in use. When you +invoke @code{diff} this way, in addition to the options specified by +@code{diff-switches} (@pxref{Comparing Files}), it receives those +specified by @code{vc-diff-switches}, plus those specified for the +specific back end by @code{vc-@var{backend}-diff-switches}. For +instance, when the version control back end is RCS, @code{diff} uses +the options in @code{vc-rcs-diff-switches}. The +@samp{vc@dots{}diff-switches} variables are @code{nil} by default. + + The buffer produced by @kbd{C-x v =} supports the commands of +Compilation mode (@pxref{Compilation Mode}), such as @kbd{C-x `} and +@kbd{C-c C-c}, in both the ``old'' and ``new'' text, and they always +find the corresponding locations in the current work file. (Older +versions are not, in general, present as files on your disk.) + +@findex vc-annotate +@kindex C-x v g + For some back ends, you can display the file @dfn{annotated} with +per-line version information and using colors to enhance the visual +appearance, with the command @kbd{M-x vc-annotate}. It creates a new +buffer (the ``annotate buffer'') displaying the file's text, with each +part colored to show how old it is. Text colored red is new, blue means +old, and intermediate colors indicate intermediate ages. By default, +the color is scaled over the full range of ages, such that the oldest +changes are blue, and the newest changes are red. + + When you give a prefix argument to this command, it uses the +minibuffer to read two arguments: which version number to display and +annotate (instead of the current file contents), and the time span in +days the color range should cover. + + From the annotate buffer, these and other color scaling options are +available from the @samp{VC-Annotate} menu. In this buffer, you can +also use the following keys to browse the annotations of past revisions, +view diffs, or view log entries: + +@table @kbd +@item P +Annotate the previous revision, that is to say, the revision before +the one currently annotated. A numeric prefix argument is a repeat +count, so @kbd{C-u 10 P} would take you back 10 revisions. + +@item N +Annotate the next revision---the one after the revision currently +annotated. A numeric prefix argument is a repeat count. + +@item J +Annotate the revision indicated by the current line. + +@item A +Annotate the revision before the one indicated by the current line. +This is useful to see the state the file was in before the change on +the current line was made. + +@item D +Display the diff between the current line's revision and the previous +revision. This is useful to see what the current line's revision +actually changed in the file. + +@item L +Show the log of the current line's revision. This is useful to see +the author's description of the changes in the revision on the current +line. + +@item W +Annotate the workfile version--the one you are editing. If you used +@kbd{P} and @kbd{N} to browse to other revisions, use this key to +return to your current version. +@end table + +@node Secondary VC Commands +@subsection The Secondary Commands of VC + + This section explains the secondary commands of VC; those that you might +use once a day. + +@menu +* Registering:: Putting a file under version control. +* VC Status:: Viewing the VC status of files. +* VC Undo:: Canceling changes before or after check-in. +@ifnottex +* VC Dired Mode:: Listing files managed by version control. +* VC Dired Commands:: Commands to use in a VC Dired buffer. +@end ifnottex +@end menu + +@node Registering +@subsubsection Registering a File for Version Control + +@kindex C-x v i +@findex vc-register + You can put any file under version control by simply visiting it, and +then typing @w{@kbd{C-x v i}} (@code{vc-register}). + +@table @kbd +@item C-x v i +Register the visited file for version control. +@end table + + To register the file, Emacs must choose which version control system +to use for it. If the file's directory already contains files +registered in a version control system, Emacs uses that system. If +there is more than one system in use for a directory, Emacs uses the +one that appears first in @code{vc-handled-backends} +@iftex +(@pxref{Customizing VC,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}). +@end iftex +@ifnottex +(@pxref{Customizing VC}). +@end ifnottex +On the other hand, if there are no files already registered, Emacs uses +the first system from @code{vc-handled-backends} that could register +the file (for example, you cannot register a file under CVS if its +directory is not already part of a CVS tree); with the default value +of @code{vc-handled-backends}, this means that Emacs uses RCS in this +situation. + + If locking is in use, @kbd{C-x v i} leaves the file unlocked and +read-only. Type @kbd{C-x v v} if you wish to start editing it. After +registering a file with CVS, you must subsequently commit the initial +version by typing @kbd{C-x v v}. Until you do that, the version +appears as @samp{@@@@} in the mode line. + +@vindex vc-default-init-version +@cindex initial version number to register + The initial version number for a newly registered file is 1.1, by +default. You can specify a different default by setting the variable +@code{vc-default-init-version}, or you can give @kbd{C-x v i} a numeric +argument; then it reads the initial version number for this particular +file using the minibuffer. + +@vindex vc-initial-comment + If @code{vc-initial-comment} is non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-x v i} reads an +initial comment to describe the purpose of this source file. Reading +the initial comment works like reading a log entry (@pxref{Log Buffer}). + +@node VC Status +@subsubsection VC Status Commands + +@table @kbd +@item C-x v l +Display version control state and change history. +@end table + +@kindex C-x v l +@findex vc-print-log + To view the detailed version control status and history of a file, +type @kbd{C-x v l} (@code{vc-print-log}). It displays the history of +changes to the current file, including the text of the log entries. The +output appears in a separate window. The point is centered at the +revision of the file that is currently being visited. + + In the change log buffer, you can use the following keys to move +between the logs of revisions and of files, to view past revisions, and +to view diffs: + +@table @kbd +@item p +Move to the previous revision-item in the buffer. (Revision entries in the log +buffer are usually in reverse-chronological order, so the previous +revision-item usually corresponds to a newer revision.) A numeric +prefix argument is a repeat count. + +@item n +Move to the next revision-item (which most often corresponds to the +previous revision of the file). A numeric prefix argument is a repeat +count. + +@item P +Move to the log of the previous file, when the logs of multiple files +are in the log buffer +@iftex +(@pxref{VC Dired Mode,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}). +@end iftex +@ifnottex +(@pxref{VC Dired Mode}). +@end ifnottex +Otherwise, just move to the beginning of the log. A numeric prefix +argument is a repeat count, so @kbd{C-u 10 P} would move backward 10 +files. + +@item N +Move to the log of the next file, when the logs of multiple files are +in the log buffer +@iftex +(@pxref{VC Dired Mode,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}). +@end iftex +@ifnottex +(@pxref{VC Dired Mode}). +@end ifnottex +It also takes a numeric prefix argument as a repeat count. + +@item f +Visit the revision indicated at the current line, like typing @kbd{C-x +v ~} and specifying this revision's number (@pxref{Old Versions}). + +@item d +Display the diff (@pxref{Comparing Files}) between the revision +indicated at the current line and the next earlier revision. This is +useful to see what actually changed when the revision indicated on the +current line was committed. +@end table + +@node VC Undo +@subsubsection Undoing Version Control Actions + +@table @kbd +@item C-x v u +Revert the buffer and the file to the version from which you started +editing the file. + +@item C-x v c +Remove the last-entered change from the master for the visited file. +This undoes your last check-in. +@end table + +@kindex C-x v u +@findex vc-revert-buffer + If you want to discard your current set of changes and revert to the +version from which you started editing the file, use @kbd{C-x v u} +(@code{vc-revert-buffer}). This leaves the file unlocked; if locking +is in use, you must first lock the file again before you change it +again. @kbd{C-x v u} requires confirmation, unless it sees that you +haven't made any changes with respect to the master version. + + @kbd{C-x v u} is also the command to unlock a file if you lock it and +then decide not to change it. + +@kindex C-x v c +@findex vc-cancel-version + To cancel a change that you already checked in, use @kbd{C-x v c} +(@code{vc-cancel-version}). This command discards all record of the +most recent checked-in version, but only if your work file corresponds +to that version---you cannot use @kbd{C-x v c} to cancel a version +that is not the latest on its branch. @kbd{C-x v c} also offers to +revert your work file and buffer to the previous version (the one that +precedes the version that is deleted). + + If you answer @kbd{no}, VC keeps your changes in the buffer, and locks +the file. The no-revert option is useful when you have checked in a +change and then discover a trivial error in it; you can cancel the +erroneous check-in, fix the error, and check the file in again. + + When @kbd{C-x v c} does not revert the buffer, it unexpands all +version control headers in the buffer instead +@iftex +(@pxref{Version Headers,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}). +@end iftex +@ifnottex +(@pxref{Version Headers}). +@end ifnottex +This is because the buffer no longer corresponds to any existing +version. If you check it in again, the check-in process will expand +the headers properly for the new version number. + + However, it is impossible to unexpand the RCS @samp{@w{$}Log$} header +automatically. If you use that header feature, you have to unexpand it +by hand---by deleting the entry for the version that you just canceled. + + Be careful when invoking @kbd{C-x v c}, as it is easy to lose a lot of +work with it. To help you be careful, this command always requires +confirmation with @kbd{yes}. Note also that this command is disabled +under CVS, because canceling versions is very dangerous and discouraged +with CVS. + +@ifnottex +@c vc1-xtra.texi needs extra level of lowering. +@lowersections +@include vc1-xtra.texi +@raisesections +@end ifnottex + +@node Branches +@subsection Multiple Branches of a File +@cindex branch (version control) +@cindex trunk (version control) + + One use of version control is to maintain multiple ``current'' +versions of a file. For example, you might have different versions of a +program in which you are gradually adding various unfinished new +features. Each such independent line of development is called a +@dfn{branch}. VC allows you to create branches, switch between +different branches, and merge changes from one branch to another. +Please note, however, that branches are not supported for SCCS. + + A file's main line of development is usually called the @dfn{trunk}. +The versions on the trunk are normally numbered 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, etc. At +any such version, you can start an independent branch. A branch +starting at version 1.2 would have version number 1.2.1.1, and consecutive +versions on this branch would have numbers 1.2.1.2, 1.2.1.3, 1.2.1.4, +and so on. If there is a second branch also starting at version 1.2, it +would consist of versions 1.2.2.1, 1.2.2.2, 1.2.2.3, etc. + +@cindex head version + If you omit the final component of a version number, that is called a +@dfn{branch number}. It refers to the highest existing version on that +branch---the @dfn{head version} of that branch. The branches in the +example above have branch numbers 1.2.1 and 1.2.2. + +@menu +* Switching Branches:: How to get to another existing branch. +* Creating Branches:: How to start a new branch. +* Merging:: Transferring changes between branches. +* Multi-User Branching:: Multiple users working at multiple branches + in parallel. +@end menu + +@node Switching Branches +@subsubsection Switching between Branches + + To switch between branches, type @kbd{C-u C-x v v} and specify the +version number you want to select. This version is then visited +@emph{unlocked} (write-protected), so you can examine it before locking +it. Switching branches in this way is allowed only when the file is not +locked. + + You can omit the minor version number, thus giving only the branch +number; this takes you to the head version on the chosen branch. If you +only type @key{RET}, Emacs goes to the highest version on the trunk. + + After you have switched to any branch (including the main branch), you +stay on it for subsequent VC commands, until you explicitly select some +other branch. + +@node Creating Branches +@subsubsection Creating New Branches + + To create a new branch from a head version (one that is the latest in +the branch that contains it), first select that version if necessary, +lock it with @kbd{C-x v v}, and make whatever changes you want. Then, +when you check in the changes, use @kbd{C-u C-x v v}. This lets you +specify the version number for the new version. You should specify a +suitable branch number for a branch starting at the current version. +For example, if the current version is 2.5, the branch number should be +2.5.1, 2.5.2, and so on, depending on the number of existing branches at +that point. + + To create a new branch at an older version (one that is no longer the +head of a branch), first select that version (@pxref{Switching +Branches}), then lock it with @kbd{C-x v v}. You'll be asked to +confirm, when you lock the old version, that you really mean to create a +new branch---if you say no, you'll be offered a chance to lock the +latest version instead. + + Then make your changes and type @kbd{C-x v v} again to check in a new +version. This automatically creates a new branch starting from the +selected version. You need not specially request a new branch, because +that's the only way to add a new version at a point that is not the head +of a branch. + + After the branch is created, you ``stay'' on it. That means that +subsequent check-ins create new versions on that branch. To leave the +branch, you must explicitly select a different version with @kbd{C-u C-x +v v}. To transfer changes from one branch to another, use the merge +command, described in the next section. + +@node Merging +@subsubsection Merging Branches + +@cindex merging changes + When you have finished the changes on a certain branch, you will +often want to incorporate them into the file's main line of development +(the trunk). This is not a trivial operation, because development might +also have proceeded on the trunk, so that you must @dfn{merge} the +changes into a file that has already been changed otherwise. VC allows +you to do this (and other things) with the @code{vc-merge} command. + +@table @kbd +@item C-x v m (vc-merge) +Merge changes into the work file. +@end table + +@kindex C-x v m +@findex vc-merge + @kbd{C-x v m} (@code{vc-merge}) takes a set of changes and merges it +into the current version of the work file. It firsts asks you in the +minibuffer where the changes should come from. If you just type +@key{RET}, Emacs merges any changes that were made on the same branch +since you checked the file out (we call this @dfn{merging the news}). +This is the common way to pick up recent changes from the repository, +regardless of whether you have already changed the file yourself. + + You can also enter a branch number or a pair of version numbers in +the minibuffer. Then @kbd{C-x v m} finds the changes from that +branch, or the differences between the two versions you specified, and +merges them into the current version of the current file. + + As an example, suppose that you have finished a certain feature on +branch 1.3.1. In the meantime, development on the trunk has proceeded +to version 1.5. To merge the changes from the branch to the trunk, +first go to the head version of the trunk, by typing @kbd{C-u C-x v v +@key{RET}}. Version 1.5 is now current. If locking is used for the file, +type @kbd{C-x v v} to lock version 1.5 so that you can change it. Next, +type @kbd{C-x v m 1.3.1 @key{RET}}. This takes the entire set of changes on +branch 1.3.1 (relative to version 1.3, where the branch started, up to +the last version on the branch) and merges it into the current version +of the work file. You can now check in the changed file, thus creating +version 1.6 containing the changes from the branch. + + It is possible to do further editing after merging the branch, before +the next check-in. But it is usually wiser to check in the merged +version, then lock it and make the further changes. This will keep +a better record of the history of changes. + +@cindex conflicts +@cindex resolving conflicts + When you merge changes into a file that has itself been modified, the +changes might overlap. We call this situation a @dfn{conflict}, and +reconciling the conflicting changes is called @dfn{resolving a +conflict}. + + Whenever conflicts occur during merging, VC detects them, tells you +about them in the echo area, and asks whether you want help in merging. +If you say yes, it starts an Ediff session (@pxref{Top, +Ediff, Ediff, ediff, The Ediff Manual}). + + If you say no, the conflicting changes are both inserted into the +file, surrounded by @dfn{conflict markers}. The example below shows how +a conflict region looks; the file is called @samp{name} and the current +master file version with user B's changes in it is 1.11. + +@c @w here is so CVS won't think this is a conflict. +@smallexample +@group +@w{<}<<<<<< name + @var{User A's version} +======= + @var{User B's version} +@w{>}>>>>>> 1.11 +@end group +@end smallexample + +@cindex vc-resolve-conflicts + Then you can resolve the conflicts by editing the file manually. Or +you can type @code{M-x vc-resolve-conflicts} after visiting the file. +This starts an Ediff session, as described above. Don't forget to +check in the merged version afterwards. + +@node Multi-User Branching +@subsubsection Multi-User Branching + + It is often useful for multiple developers to work simultaneously on +different branches of a file. CVS allows this by default; for RCS, it +is possible if you create multiple source directories. Each source +directory should have a link named @file{RCS} which points to a common +directory of RCS master files. Then each source directory can have its +own choice of selected versions, but all share the same common RCS +records. + + This technique works reliably and automatically, provided that the +source files contain RCS version headers +@iftex +(@pxref{Version Headers,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}). +@end iftex +@ifnottex +(@pxref{Version Headers}). +@end ifnottex +The headers enable Emacs to be sure, at all times, which version +number is present in the work file. + + If the files do not have version headers, you must instead tell Emacs +explicitly in each session which branch you are working on. To do this, +first find the file, then type @kbd{C-u C-x v v} and specify the correct +branch number. This ensures that Emacs knows which branch it is using +during this particular editing session. + +@ifnottex +@include vc2-xtra.texi +@end ifnottex + +@node Directories +@section File Directories + +@cindex file directory +@cindex directory listing + The file system groups files into @dfn{directories}. A @dfn{directory +listing} is a list of all the files in a directory. Emacs provides +commands to create and delete directories, and to make directory +listings in brief format (file names only) and verbose format (sizes, +dates, and authors included). Emacs also includes a directory browser +feature called Dired; see @ref{Dired}. + +@table @kbd +@item C-x C-d @var{dir-or-pattern} @key{RET} +Display a brief directory listing (@code{list-directory}). +@item C-u C-x C-d @var{dir-or-pattern} @key{RET} +Display a verbose directory listing. +@item M-x make-directory @key{RET} @var{dirname} @key{RET} +Create a new directory named @var{dirname}. +@item M-x delete-directory @key{RET} @var{dirname} @key{RET} +Delete the directory named @var{dirname}. It must be empty, +or you get an error. +@end table + +@findex list-directory +@kindex C-x C-d + The command to display a directory listing is @kbd{C-x C-d} +(@code{list-directory}). It reads using the minibuffer a file name +which is either a directory to be listed or a wildcard-containing +pattern for the files to be listed. For example, + +@example +C-x C-d /u2/emacs/etc @key{RET} +@end example + +@noindent +lists all the files in directory @file{/u2/emacs/etc}. Here is an +example of specifying a file name pattern: + +@example +C-x C-d /u2/emacs/src/*.c @key{RET} +@end example + + Normally, @kbd{C-x C-d} displays a brief directory listing containing +just file names. A numeric argument (regardless of value) tells it to +make a verbose listing including sizes, dates, and owners (like +@samp{ls -l}). + +@vindex list-directory-brief-switches +@vindex list-directory-verbose-switches + The text of a directory listing is mostly obtained by running +@code{ls} in an inferior process. Two Emacs variables control the +switches passed to @code{ls}: @code{list-directory-brief-switches} is +a string giving the switches to use in brief listings (@code{"-CF"} by +default), and @code{list-directory-verbose-switches} is a string +giving the switches to use in a verbose listing (@code{"-l"} by +default). + +@vindex directory-free-space-program +@vindex directory-free-space-args + In verbose directory listings, Emacs adds information about the +amount of free space on the disk that contains the directory. To do +this, it runs the program specified by +@code{directory-free-space-program} with arguments +@code{directory-free-space-args}. + +@node Comparing Files +@section Comparing Files +@cindex comparing files + +@findex diff +@vindex diff-switches + The command @kbd{M-x diff} compares two files, displaying the +differences in an Emacs buffer named @samp{*diff*}. It works by +running the @code{diff} program, using options taken from the variable +@code{diff-switches}. The value of @code{diff-switches} should be a +string; the default is @code{"-c"} to specify a context diff. +@xref{Top,, Diff, diff, Comparing and Merging Files}, for more +information about @command{diff} output formats. + +@findex diff-backup + The command @kbd{M-x diff-backup} compares a specified file with its most +recent backup. If you specify the name of a backup file, +@code{diff-backup} compares it with the source file that it is a backup +of. + +@findex compare-windows + The command @kbd{M-x compare-windows} compares the text in the +current window with that in the next window. (For more information +about windows in Emacs, @ref{Windows}.) Comparison starts at point in +each window, after pushing each initial point value on the mark ring +in its respective buffer. Then it moves point forward in each window, +one character at a time, until it reaches characters that don't match. +Then the command exits. + + If point in the two windows is followed by non-matching text when +the command starts, @kbd{M-x compare-windows} tries heuristically to +advance up to matching text in the two windows, and then exits. So if +you use @kbd{M-x compare-windows} repeatedly, each time it either +skips one matching range or finds the start of another. + +@vindex compare-ignore-case +@vindex compare-ignore-whitespace + With a numeric argument, @code{compare-windows} ignores changes in +whitespace. If the variable @code{compare-ignore-case} is +non-@code{nil}, the comparison ignores differences in case as well. +If the variable @code{compare-ignore-whitespace} is non-@code{nil}, +@code{compare-windows} normally ignores changes in whitespace, and a +prefix argument turns that off. + +@cindex Smerge mode +@findex smerge-mode +@cindex failed merges +@cindex merges, failed +@cindex comparing 3 files (@code{diff3}) + You can use @kbd{M-x smerge-mode} to turn on Smerge mode, a minor +mode for editing output from the @command{diff3} program. This is +typically the result of a failed merge from a version control system +``update'' outside VC, due to conflicting changes to a file. Smerge +mode provides commands to resolve conflicts by selecting specific +changes. + +@iftex +@xref{Emerge,,, emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}, +@end iftex +@ifnottex +@xref{Emerge}, +@end ifnottex +for the Emerge facility, which provides a powerful interface for +merging files. + +@node Diff Mode +@section Diff Mode +@cindex Diff mode +@findex diff-mode +@cindex patches, editing + + Diff mode is used for the output of @kbd{M-x diff}; it is also +useful for editing patches and comparisons produced by the +@command{diff} program. To select Diff mode manually, type @kbd{M-x +diff-mode}. + + One general feature of Diff mode is that manual edits to the patch +automatically correct line numbers, including those in the hunk +header, so that you can actually apply the edited patch. Diff mode +treats each hunk location as an ``error message,'' so that you can use +commands such as @kbd{C-x '} to visit the corresponding source +locations. It also provides the following commands to navigate, +manipulate and apply parts of patches: + +@table @kbd +@item M-n +Move to the next hunk-start (@code{diff-hunk-next}). + +@item M-p +Move to the previous hunk-start (@code{diff-hunk-prev}). + +@item M-@} +Move to the next file-start, in a multi-file patch +(@code{diff-file-next}). + +@item M-@{ +Move to the previous file-start, in a multi-file patch +(@code{diff-file-prev}). + +@item M-k +Kill the hunk at point (@code{diff-hunk-kill}). + +@item M-K +In a multi-file patch, kill the current file part. +(@code{diff-file-kill}). + +@item C-c C-a +Apply this hunk to its target file (@code{diff-apply-hunk}). With a +prefix argument of @kbd{C-u}, revert this hunk. + +@item C-c C-c +Go to the source corresponding to this hunk (@code{diff-goto-source}). + +@item C-c C-e +Start an Ediff session with the patch (@code{diff-ediff-patch}). +@xref{Top, Ediff, Ediff, ediff, The Ediff Manual}. + +@item C-c C-n +Restrict the view to the current hunk (@code{diff-restrict-view}). +@xref{Narrowing}. With a prefix argument of @kbd{C-u}, restrict the +view to the current patch of a multiple file patch. To widen again, +use @kbd{C-x n w}. + +@item C-c C-r +Reverse the direction of comparison for the entire buffer +(@code{diff-reverse-direction}). + +@item C-c C-s +Split the hunk at point (@code{diff-split-hunk}). This is for +manually editing patches, and only works with the unified diff format. + +@item C-c C-u +Convert the entire buffer to unified format +(@code{diff-context->unified}). With a prefix argument, convert +unified format to context format. In Transient Mark mode, when the +mark is active, this command operates only on the region. + +@item C-c C-w +Refine the current hunk so that it disregards changes in whitespace +(@code{diff-refine-hunk}). +@end table + + @kbd{C-x 4 a} in Diff mode operates on behalf of the target file, +but gets the function name from the patch itself. @xref{Change Log}. +This is useful for making log entries for functions that are deleted +by the patch. + +@node Misc File Ops +@section Miscellaneous File Operations + + Emacs has commands for performing many other operations on files. +All operate on one file; they do not accept wildcard file names. + +@findex view-file +@cindex viewing +@cindex View mode +@cindex mode, View + @kbd{M-x view-file} allows you to scan or read a file by sequential +screenfuls. It reads a file name argument using the minibuffer. After +reading the file into an Emacs buffer, @code{view-file} displays the +beginning. You can then type @key{SPC} to scroll forward one windowful, +or @key{DEL} to scroll backward. Various other commands are provided +for moving around in the file, but none for changing it; type @kbd{?} +while viewing for a list of them. They are mostly the same as normal +Emacs cursor motion commands. To exit from viewing, type @kbd{q}. +The commands for viewing are defined by a special minor mode called View +mode. + + A related command, @kbd{M-x view-buffer}, views a buffer already present +in Emacs. @xref{Misc Buffer}. + +@kindex C-x i +@findex insert-file + @kbd{M-x insert-file} (also @kbd{C-x i}) inserts a copy of the +contents of the specified file into the current buffer at point, +leaving point unchanged before the contents and the mark after them. + +@findex insert-file-literally + @kbd{M-x insert-file-literally} is like @kbd{M-x insert-file}, +except the file is inserted ``literally'': it is treated as a sequence +of @acronym{ASCII} characters with no special encoding or conversion, +similar to the @kbd{M-x find-file-literally} command +(@pxref{Visiting}). + +@findex write-region + @kbd{M-x write-region} is the inverse of @kbd{M-x insert-file}; it +copies the contents of the region into the specified file. @kbd{M-x +append-to-file} adds the text of the region to the end of the +specified file. @xref{Accumulating Text}. The variable +@code{write-region-inhibit-fsync} applies to these commands, as well +as saving files; see @ref{Customize Save}. + +@findex delete-file +@cindex deletion (of files) + @kbd{M-x delete-file} deletes the specified file, like the @code{rm} +command in the shell. If you are deleting many files in one directory, it +may be more convenient to use Dired (@pxref{Dired}). + +@findex rename-file + @kbd{M-x rename-file} reads two file names @var{old} and @var{new} using +the minibuffer, then renames file @var{old} as @var{new}. If the file name +@var{new} already exists, you must confirm with @kbd{yes} or renaming is not +done; this is because renaming causes the old meaning of the name @var{new} +to be lost. If @var{old} and @var{new} are on different file systems, the +file @var{old} is copied and deleted. + + If the argument @var{new} is just a directory name, the real new +name is in that directory, with the same non-directory component as +@var{old}. For example, @kbd{M-x rename-file RET ~/foo RET /tmp RET} +renames @file{~/foo} to @file{/tmp/foo}. The same rule applies to all +the remaining commands in this section. All of them ask for +confirmation when the new file name already exists, too. + +@findex add-name-to-file +@cindex hard links (creation) + The similar command @kbd{M-x add-name-to-file} is used to add an +additional name to an existing file without removing its old name. +The new name is created as a ``hard link'' to the existing file. +The new name must belong on the same file system that the file is on. +On MS-Windows, this command works only if the file resides in an NTFS +file system. On MS-DOS, it works by copying the file. + +@findex copy-file +@cindex copying files + @kbd{M-x copy-file} reads the file @var{old} and writes a new file +named @var{new} with the same contents. + +@findex make-symbolic-link +@cindex symbolic links (creation) + @kbd{M-x make-symbolic-link} reads two file names @var{target} and +@var{linkname}, then creates a symbolic link named @var{linkname}, +which points at @var{target}. The effect is that future attempts to +open file @var{linkname} will refer to whatever file is named +@var{target} at the time the opening is done, or will get an error if +the name @var{target} is nonexistent at that time. This command does +not expand the argument @var{target}, so that it allows you to specify +a relative name as the target of the link. + + Not all systems support symbolic links; on systems that don't +support them, this command is not defined. + +@node Compressed Files +@section Accessing Compressed Files +@cindex compression +@cindex uncompression +@cindex Auto Compression mode +@cindex mode, Auto Compression +@pindex gzip + + Emacs automatically uncompresses compressed files when you visit +them, and automatically recompresses them if you alter them and save +them. Emacs recognizes compressed files by their file names. File +names ending in @samp{.gz} indicate a file compressed with +@code{gzip}. Other endings indicate other compression programs. + + Automatic uncompression and compression apply to all the operations in +which Emacs uses the contents of a file. This includes visiting it, +saving it, inserting its contents into a buffer, loading it, and byte +compiling it. + +@findex auto-compression-mode +@vindex auto-compression-mode + To disable this feature, type the command @kbd{M-x +auto-compression-mode}. You can disable it permanently by +customizing the variable @code{auto-compression-mode}. + +@node File Archives +@section File Archives +@cindex mode, tar +@cindex Tar mode +@cindex file archives + + A file whose name ends in @samp{.tar} is normally an @dfn{archive} +made by the @code{tar} program. Emacs views these files in a special +mode called Tar mode which provides a Dired-like list of the contents +(@pxref{Dired}). You can move around through the list just as you +would in Dired, and visit the subfiles contained in the archive. +However, not all Dired commands are available in Tar mode. + + If Auto Compression mode is enabled (@pxref{Compressed Files}), then +Tar mode is used also for compressed archives---files with extensions +@samp{.tgz}, @code{.tar.Z} and @code{.tar.gz}. + + The keys @kbd{e}, @kbd{f} and @key{RET} all extract a component file +into its own buffer. You can edit it there, and if you save the +buffer, the edited version will replace the version in the Tar buffer. +@kbd{v} extracts a file into a buffer in View mode. @kbd{o} extracts +the file and displays it in another window, so you could edit the file +and operate on the archive simultaneously. @kbd{d} marks a file for +deletion when you later use @kbd{x}, and @kbd{u} unmarks a file, as in +Dired. @kbd{C} copies a file from the archive to disk and @kbd{R} +renames a file within the archive. @kbd{g} reverts the buffer from +the archive on disk. + + The keys @kbd{M}, @kbd{G}, and @kbd{O} change the file's permission +bits, group, and owner, respectively. + + If your display supports colors and the mouse, moving the mouse +pointer across a file name highlights that file name, indicating that +you can click on it. Clicking @kbd{Mouse-2} on the highlighted file +name extracts the file into a buffer and displays that buffer. + + Saving the Tar buffer writes a new version of the archive to disk with +the changes you made to the components. + + You don't need the @code{tar} program to use Tar mode---Emacs reads +the archives directly. However, accessing compressed archives +requires the appropriate uncompression program. + +@cindex Archive mode +@cindex mode, archive +@cindex @code{arc} +@cindex @code{jar} +@cindex @code{zip} +@cindex @code{lzh} +@cindex @code{zoo} +@pindex arc +@pindex jar +@pindex zip +@pindex lzh +@pindex zoo +@cindex Java class archives +@cindex unzip archives + A separate but similar Archive mode is used for archives produced by +the programs @code{arc}, @code{jar}, @code{lzh}, @code{zip}, and +@code{zoo}, which have extensions corresponding to the program names. +Archive mode also works for those @code{exe} files that are +self-extracting executables. + + The key bindings of Archive mode are similar to those in Tar mode, +with the addition of the @kbd{m} key which marks a file for subsequent +operations, and @kbd{M-@key{DEL}} which unmarks all the marked files. +Also, the @kbd{a} key toggles the display of detailed file +information, for those archive types where it won't fit in a single +line. Operations such as renaming a subfile, or changing its mode or +owner, are supported only for some of the archive formats. + + Unlike Tar mode, Archive mode runs the archiving program to unpack +and repack archives. Details of the program names and their options +can be set in the @samp{Archive} Customize group. However, you don't +need these programs to look at the archive table of contents, only to +extract or manipulate the subfiles in the archive. + +@node Remote Files +@section Remote Files + +@cindex Tramp +@cindex FTP +@cindex remote file access + You can refer to files on other machines using a special file name +syntax: + +@example +@group +/@var{host}:@var{filename} +/@var{user}@@@var{host}:@var{filename} +/@var{user}@@@var{host}#@var{port}:@var{filename} +/@var{method}:@var{user}@@@var{host}:@var{filename} +/@var{method}:@var{user}@@@var{host}#@var{port}:@var{filename} +@end group +@end example + +@noindent +To carry out this request, Emacs uses either the FTP program or a +remote-login program such as @command{ssh}, @command{rlogin}, or +@command{telnet}. You can always specify in the file name which +method to use---for example, +@file{/ftp:@var{user}@@@var{host}:@var{filename}} uses FTP, whereas +@file{/ssh:@var{user}@@@var{host}:@var{filename}} uses @command{ssh}. +When you don't specify a method in the file name, Emacs chooses +the method as follows: + +@enumerate +@item +If the host name starts with @samp{ftp.} (with dot), then Emacs uses +FTP. +@item +If the user name is @samp{ftp} or @samp{anonymous}, then Emacs uses +FTP. +@item +Otherwise, Emacs uses @command{ssh}. +@end enumerate + +@noindent +Remote file access through FTP is handled by the Ange-FTP package, which +is documented in the following. Remote file access through the other +methods is handled by the Tramp package, which has its own manual. +@xref{Top, The Tramp Manual,, tramp, The Tramp Manual}. + +When the Ange-FTP package is used, Emacs logs in through FTP using your +user name or the name @var{user}. It may ask you for a password from +time to time; this is used for logging in on @var{host}. The form using +@var{port} allows you to access servers running on a non-default TCP +port. + +@cindex backups for remote files +@vindex ange-ftp-make-backup-files + If you want to disable backups for remote files, set the variable +@code{ange-ftp-make-backup-files} to @code{nil}. + + By default, the auto-save files (@pxref{Auto Save Files}) for remote +files are made in the temporary file directory on the local machine. +This is achieved using the variable @code{auto-save-file-name-transforms}. + +@cindex ange-ftp +@vindex ange-ftp-default-user +@cindex user name for remote file access + Normally, if you do not specify a user name in a remote file name, +that means to use your own user name. But if you set the variable +@code{ange-ftp-default-user} to a string, that string is used instead. + +@cindex anonymous FTP +@vindex ange-ftp-generate-anonymous-password + To visit files accessible by anonymous FTP, you use special user +names @samp{anonymous} or @samp{ftp}. Passwords for these user names +are handled specially. The variable +@code{ange-ftp-generate-anonymous-password} controls what happens: if +the value of this variable is a string, then that string is used as +the password; if non-@code{nil} (the default), then the value of +@code{user-mail-address} is used; if @code{nil}, then Emacs prompts +you for a password as usual. + +@cindex firewall, and accessing remote files +@cindex gateway, and remote file access with @code{ange-ftp} +@vindex ange-ftp-smart-gateway +@vindex ange-ftp-gateway-host + Sometimes you may be unable to access files on a remote machine +because a @dfn{firewall} in between blocks the connection for security +reasons. If you can log in on a @dfn{gateway} machine from which the +target files @emph{are} accessible, and whose FTP server supports +gatewaying features, you can still use remote file names; all you have +to do is specify the name of the gateway machine by setting the +variable @code{ange-ftp-gateway-host}, and set +@code{ange-ftp-smart-gateway} to @code{t}. Otherwise you may be able +to make remote file names work, but the procedure is complex. You can +read the instructions by typing @kbd{M-x finder-commentary @key{RET} +ange-ftp @key{RET}}. + +@vindex file-name-handler-alist +@cindex disabling remote files + You can entirely turn off the FTP file name feature by removing the +entries @code{ange-ftp-completion-hook-function} and +@code{ange-ftp-hook-function} from the variable +@code{file-name-handler-alist}. You can turn off the feature in +individual cases by quoting the file name with @samp{/:} (@pxref{Quoted +File Names}). + +@node Quoted File Names +@section Quoted File Names + +@cindex quoting file names +@cindex file names, quote special characters + You can @dfn{quote} an absolute file name to prevent special +characters and syntax in it from having their special effects. +The way to do this is to add @samp{/:} at the beginning. + + For example, you can quote a local file name which appears remote, to +prevent it from being treated as a remote file name. Thus, if you have +a directory named @file{/foo:} and a file named @file{bar} in it, you +can refer to that file in Emacs as @samp{/:/foo:/bar}. + + @samp{/:} can also prevent @samp{~} from being treated as a special +character for a user's home directory. For example, @file{/:/tmp/~hack} +refers to a file whose name is @file{~hack} in directory @file{/tmp}. + + Quoting with @samp{/:} is also a way to enter in the minibuffer a +file name that contains @samp{$}. In order for this to work, the +@samp{/:} must be at the beginning of the minibuffer contents. (You +can also double each @samp{$}; see @ref{File Names with $}.) + + You can also quote wildcard characters with @samp{/:}, for visiting. +For example, @file{/:/tmp/foo*bar} visits the file +@file{/tmp/foo*bar}. + + Another method of getting the same result is to enter +@file{/tmp/foo[*]bar}, which is a wildcard specification that matches +only @file{/tmp/foo*bar}. However, in many cases there is no need to +quote the wildcard characters because even unquoted they give the +right result. For example, if the only file name in @file{/tmp} that +starts with @samp{foo} and ends with @samp{bar} is @file{foo*bar}, +then specifying @file{/tmp/foo*bar} will visit only +@file{/tmp/foo*bar}. + +@node File Name Cache +@section File Name Cache + +@cindex file name caching +@cindex cache of file names +@pindex find +@kindex C-@key{TAB} +@findex file-cache-minibuffer-complete + You can use the @dfn{file name cache} to make it easy to locate a +file by name, without having to remember exactly where it is located. +When typing a file name in the minibuffer, @kbd{C-@key{tab}} +(@code{file-cache-minibuffer-complete}) completes it using the file +name cache. If you repeat @kbd{C-@key{tab}}, that cycles through the +possible completions of what you had originally typed. (However, note +that the @kbd{C-@key{tab}} character cannot be typed on most text-only +terminals.) + + The file name cache does not fill up automatically. Instead, you +load file names into the cache using these commands: + +@findex file-cache-add-directory +@table @kbd +@item M-x file-cache-add-directory @key{RET} @var{directory} @key{RET} +Add each file name in @var{directory} to the file name cache. +@item M-x file-cache-add-directory-using-find @key{RET} @var{directory} @key{RET} +Add each file name in @var{directory} and all of its nested +subdirectories to the file name cache. +@item M-x file-cache-add-directory-using-locate @key{RET} @var{directory} @key{RET} +Add each file name in @var{directory} and all of its nested +subdirectories to the file name cache, using @command{locate} to find +them all. +@item M-x file-cache-add-directory-list @key{RET} @var{variable} @key{RET} +Add each file name in each directory listed in @var{variable} +to the file name cache. @var{variable} should be a Lisp variable +such as @code{load-path} or @code{exec-path}, whose value is a list +of directory names. +@item M-x file-cache-clear-cache @key{RET} +Clear the cache; that is, remove all file names from it. +@end table + + The file name cache is not persistent: it is kept and maintained +only for the duration of the Emacs session. You can view the contents +of the cache with the @code{file-cache-display} command. + +@node File Conveniences +@section Convenience Features for Finding Files + + In this section, we introduce some convenient facilities for finding +recently-opened files, reading file names from a buffer, and viewing +image files. + +@findex recentf-mode +@vindex recentf-mode +@findex recentf-save-list +@findex recentf-edit-list + If you enable Recentf mode, with @kbd{M-x recentf-mode}, the +@samp{File} menu includes a submenu containing a list of recently +opened files. @kbd{M-x recentf-save-list} saves the current +@code{recent-file-list} to a file, and @kbd{M-x recentf-edit-list} +edits it. + + The @kbd{M-x ffap} command generalizes @code{find-file} with more +powerful heuristic defaults (@pxref{FFAP}), often based on the text at +point. Partial Completion mode offers other features extending +@code{find-file}, which can be used with @code{ffap}. +@xref{Completion Options}. + +@findex image-mode +@findex image-toggle-display +@cindex images, viewing + Visiting image files automatically selects Image mode. This major +mode allows you to toggle between displaying the file as an image in +the Emacs buffer, and displaying its underlying text representation, +using the command @kbd{C-c C-c} (@code{image-toggle-display}). This +works only when Emacs can display the specific image type. If the +displayed image is wider or taller than the frame, the usual point +motion keys (@kbd{C-f}, @kbd{C-p}, and so forth) cause different parts +of the image to be displayed. + +@findex thumbs-mode +@findex mode, thumbs + See also the Image-Dired package (@pxref{Image-Dired}) for viewing +images as thumbnails. + +@node Filesets +@section Filesets +@cindex filesets + +@findex filesets-init + If you regularly edit a certain group of files, you can define them +as a @dfn{fileset}. This lets you perform certain operations, such as +visiting, @code{query-replace}, and shell commands on all the files +at once. To make use of filesets, you must first add the expression +@code{(filesets-init)} to your @file{.emacs} file (@pxref{Init File}). +This adds a @samp{Filesets} menu to the menu bar. + +@findex filesets-add-buffer +@findex filesets-remove-buffer + The simplest way to define a fileset is by adding files to it one +at a time. To add a file to fileset @var{name}, visit the file and +type @kbd{M-x filesets-add-buffer @kbd{RET} @var{name} @kbd{RET}}. If +there is no fileset @var{name}, this creates a new one, which +initially creates only the current file. The command @kbd{M-x +filesets-remove-buffer} removes the current file from a fileset. + + You can also edit the list of filesets directly, with @kbd{M-x +filesets-edit} (or by choosing @samp{Edit Filesets} from the +@samp{Filesets} menu). The editing is performed in a Customize buffer +(@pxref{Easy Customization}). Filesets need not be a simple list of +files---you can also define filesets using regular expression matching +file names. Some examples of these more complicated filesets are +shown in the Customize buffer. Remember to select @samp{Save for +future sessions} if you want to use the same filesets in future Emacs +sessions. + + You can use the command @kbd{M-x filesets-open} to visit all the +files in a fileset, and @kbd{M-x filesets-close} to close them. Use +@kbd{M-x filesets-run-cmd} to run a shell command on all the files in +a fileset. These commands are also available from the @samp{Filesets} +menu, where each existing fileset is represented by a submenu. + +@ignore + arch-tag: 768d32cb-e15a-4cc1-b7bf-62c00ee12250 +@end ignore