Mercurial > emacs
changeset 84133:6d3e73fad987
Move to ../doc/emacs/, misc/
| author | Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org> |
|---|---|
| date | Thu, 06 Sep 2007 04:34:29 +0000 |
| parents | add806db14ca |
| children | 52f27bf15910 |
| files | man/cl.texi |
| diffstat | 1 files changed, 0 insertions(+), 5377 deletions(-) [+] |
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--- a/man/cl.texi Thu Sep 06 04:34:23 2007 +0000 +++ /dev/null Thu Jan 01 00:00:00 1970 +0000 @@ -1,5377 +0,0 @@ -\input texinfo @c -*-texinfo-*- -@setfilename ../info/cl -@settitle Common Lisp Extensions - -@copying -This file documents the GNU Emacs Common Lisp emulation package. - -Copyright @copyright{} 1993, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 -Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -@quotation -Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document -under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or -any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no -Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover texts being ``A GNU -Manual'', and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a) below. A copy of the -license is included in the section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation -License'' in the Emacs manual. - -(a) The FSF's Back-Cover Text is: ``You have freedom to copy and modify -this GNU Manual, like GNU software. Copies published by the Free -Software Foundation raise funds for GNU development.'' - -This document is part of a collection distributed under the GNU Free -Documentation License. If you want to distribute this document -separately from the collection, you can do so by adding a copy of the -license to the document, as described in section 6 of the license. -@end quotation -@end copying - -@dircategory Emacs -@direntry -* CL: (cl). Partial Common Lisp support for Emacs Lisp. -@end direntry - -@finalout - -@titlepage -@sp 6 -@center @titlefont{Common Lisp Extensions} -@sp 4 -@center For GNU Emacs Lisp -@sp 1 -@center Version 2.02 -@sp 5 -@center Dave Gillespie -@center daveg@@synaptics.com -@page -@vskip 0pt plus 1filll -@insertcopying -@end titlepage - -@node Top, Overview, (dir), (dir) -@chapter Introduction - -@noindent -This document describes a set of Emacs Lisp facilities borrowed from -Common Lisp. All the facilities are described here in detail. While -this document does not assume any prior knowledge of Common Lisp, it -does assume a basic familiarity with Emacs Lisp. - -@menu -* Overview:: Installation, usage, etc. -* Program Structure:: Arglists, `eval-when', `defalias' -* Predicates:: `typep', `eql', and `equalp' -* Control Structure:: `setf', `do', `loop', etc. -* Macros:: Destructuring, `define-compiler-macro' -* Declarations:: `proclaim', `declare', etc. -* Symbols:: Property lists, `gensym' -* Numbers:: Predicates, functions, random numbers -* Sequences:: Mapping, functions, searching, sorting -* Lists:: `cadr', `sublis', `member*', `assoc*', etc. -* Structures:: `defstruct' -* Assertions:: `check-type', `assert', `ignore-errors'. - -* Efficiency Concerns:: Hints and techniques -* Common Lisp Compatibility:: All known differences with Steele -* Old CL Compatibility:: All known differences with old cl.el -* Porting Common Lisp:: Hints for porting Common Lisp code - -* GNU Free Documentation License:: The license for this documentation. -* Function Index:: -* Variable Index:: -@end menu - -@node Overview, Program Structure, Top, Top -@ifnottex -@chapter Overview -@end ifnottex - -@noindent -Common Lisp is a huge language, and Common Lisp systems tend to be -massive and extremely complex. Emacs Lisp, by contrast, is rather -minimalist in the choice of Lisp features it offers the programmer. -As Emacs Lisp programmers have grown in number, and the applications -they write have grown more ambitious, it has become clear that Emacs -Lisp could benefit from many of the conveniences of Common Lisp. - -The @dfn{CL} package adds a number of Common Lisp functions and -control structures to Emacs Lisp. While not a 100% complete -implementation of Common Lisp, @dfn{CL} adds enough functionality -to make Emacs Lisp programming significantly more convenient. - -@strong{Please note:} the @dfn{CL} functions are not standard parts of -the Emacs Lisp name space, so it is legitimate for users to define -them with other, conflicting meanings. To avoid conflicting with -those user activities, we have a policy that packages installed in -Emacs must not load @dfn{CL} at run time. (It is ok for them to load -@dfn{CL} at compile time only, with @code{eval-when-compile}, and use -the macros it provides.) If you are writing packages that you plan to -distribute and invite widespread use for, you might want to observe -the same rule. - -Some Common Lisp features have been omitted from this package -for various reasons: - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Some features are too complex or bulky relative to their benefit -to Emacs Lisp programmers. CLOS and Common Lisp streams are fine -examples of this group. - -@item -Other features cannot be implemented without modification to the -Emacs Lisp interpreter itself, such as multiple return values, -lexical scoping, case-insensitive symbols, and complex numbers. -The @dfn{CL} package generally makes no attempt to emulate these -features. - -@item -Some features conflict with existing things in Emacs Lisp. For -example, Emacs' @code{assoc} function is incompatible with the -Common Lisp @code{assoc}. In such cases, this package usually -adds the suffix @samp{*} to the function name of the Common -Lisp version of the function (e.g., @code{assoc*}). -@end itemize - -The package described here was written by Dave Gillespie, -@file{daveg@@synaptics.com}. It is a total rewrite of the original -1986 @file{cl.el} package by Cesar Quiroz. Most features of the -Quiroz package have been retained; any incompatibilities are -noted in the descriptions below. Care has been taken in this -version to ensure that each function is defined efficiently, -concisely, and with minimal impact on the rest of the Emacs -environment. - -@menu -* Usage:: How to use the CL package -* Organization:: The package's five component files -* Installation:: Compiling and installing CL -* Naming Conventions:: Notes on CL function names -@end menu - -@node Usage, Organization, Overview, Overview -@section Usage - -@noindent -Lisp code that uses features from the @dfn{CL} package should -include at the beginning: - -@example -(require 'cl) -@end example - -@noindent -If you want to ensure that the new (Gillespie) version of @dfn{CL} -is the one that is present, add an additional @code{(require 'cl-19)} -call: - -@example -(require 'cl) -(require 'cl-19) -@end example - -@noindent -The second call will fail (with ``@file{cl-19.el} not found'') if -the old @file{cl.el} package was in use. - -It is safe to arrange to load @dfn{CL} at all times, e.g., -in your @file{.emacs} file. But it's a good idea, for portability, -to @code{(require 'cl)} in your code even if you do this. - -@node Organization, Installation, Usage, Overview -@section Organization - -@noindent -The Common Lisp package is organized into four files: - -@table @file -@item cl.el -This is the ``main'' file, which contains basic functions -and information about the package. This file is relatively -compact---about 700 lines. - -@item cl-extra.el -This file contains the larger, more complex or unusual functions. -It is kept separate so that packages which only want to use Common -Lisp fundamentals like the @code{cadr} function won't need to pay -the overhead of loading the more advanced functions. - -@item cl-seq.el -This file contains most of the advanced functions for operating -on sequences or lists, such as @code{delete-if} and @code{assoc*}. - -@item cl-macs.el -This file contains the features of the packages which are macros -instead of functions. Macros expand when the caller is compiled, -not when it is run, so the macros generally only need to be -present when the byte-compiler is running (or when the macros are -used in uncompiled code such as a @file{.emacs} file). Most of -the macros of this package are isolated in @file{cl-macs.el} so -that they won't take up memory unless you are compiling. -@end table - -The file @file{cl.el} includes all necessary @code{autoload} -commands for the functions and macros in the other three files. -All you have to do is @code{(require 'cl)}, and @file{cl.el} -will take care of pulling in the other files when they are -needed. - -There is another file, @file{cl-compat.el}, which defines some -routines from the older @file{cl.el} package that are no longer -present in the new package. This includes internal routines -like @code{setelt} and @code{zip-lists}, deprecated features -like @code{defkeyword}, and an emulation of the old-style -multiple-values feature. @xref{Old CL Compatibility}. - -@node Installation, Naming Conventions, Organization, Overview -@section Installation - -@noindent -Installation of the @dfn{CL} package is simple: Just put the -byte-compiled files @file{cl.elc}, @file{cl-extra.elc}, -@file{cl-seq.elc}, @file{cl-macs.elc}, and @file{cl-compat.elc} -into a directory on your @code{load-path}. - -There are no special requirements to compile this package: -The files do not have to be loaded before they are compiled, -nor do they need to be compiled in any particular order. - -You may choose to put the files into your main @file{lisp/} -directory, replacing the original @file{cl.el} file there. Or, -you could put them into a directory that comes before @file{lisp/} -on your @code{load-path} so that the old @file{cl.el} is -effectively hidden. - -Also, format the @file{cl.texinfo} file and put the resulting -Info files in the @file{info/} directory or another suitable place. - -You may instead wish to leave this package's components all in -their own directory, and then add this directory to your -@code{load-path} and @code{Info-directory-list}. -Add the directory to the front of the list so the old @dfn{CL} -package and its documentation are hidden. - -@node Naming Conventions, , Installation, Overview -@section Naming Conventions - -@noindent -Except where noted, all functions defined by this package have the -same names and calling conventions as their Common Lisp counterparts. - -Following is a complete list of functions whose names were changed -from Common Lisp, usually to avoid conflicts with Emacs. In each -case, a @samp{*} has been appended to the Common Lisp name to obtain -the Emacs name: - -@example -defun* defsubst* defmacro* function* -member* assoc* rassoc* get* -remove* delete* mapcar* sort* -floor* ceiling* truncate* round* -mod* rem* random* -@end example - -Internal function and variable names in the package are prefixed -by @code{cl-}. Here is a complete list of functions @emph{not} -prefixed by @code{cl-} which were not taken from Common Lisp: - -@example -floatp-safe lexical-let lexical-let* -callf callf2 letf letf* -defsubst* -@end example - -The following simple functions and macros are defined in @file{cl.el}; -they do not cause other components like @file{cl-extra} to be loaded. - -@example -eql floatp-safe endp -evenp oddp plusp minusp -caaar .. cddddr -list* ldiff rest first .. tenth -copy-list subst mapcar* [2] -adjoin [3] acons pairlis pop [4] -push [4] pushnew [3,4] incf [4] decf [4] -proclaim declaim -@end example - -@noindent -[2] Only for one sequence argument or two list arguments. - -@noindent -[3] Only if @code{:test} is @code{eq}, @code{equal}, or unspecified, -and @code{:key} is not used. - -@noindent -[4] Only when @var{place} is a plain variable name. - -@iftex -@chapno=4 -@end iftex - -@node Program Structure, Predicates, Overview, Top -@chapter Program Structure - -@noindent -This section describes features of the @dfn{CL} package which have to -do with programs as a whole: advanced argument lists for functions, -and the @code{eval-when} construct. - -@menu -* Argument Lists:: `&key', `&aux', `defun*', `defmacro*'. -* Time of Evaluation:: The `eval-when' construct. -@end menu - -@iftex -@secno=1 -@end iftex - -@node Argument Lists, Time of Evaluation, Program Structure, Program Structure -@section Argument Lists - -@noindent -Emacs Lisp's notation for argument lists of functions is a subset of -the Common Lisp notation. As well as the familiar @code{&optional} -and @code{&rest} markers, Common Lisp allows you to specify default -values for optional arguments, and it provides the additional markers -@code{&key} and @code{&aux}. - -Since argument parsing is built-in to Emacs, there is no way for -this package to implement Common Lisp argument lists seamlessly. -Instead, this package defines alternates for several Lisp forms -which you must use if you need Common Lisp argument lists. - -@defspec defun* name arglist body... -This form is identical to the regular @code{defun} form, except -that @var{arglist} is allowed to be a full Common Lisp argument -list. Also, the function body is enclosed in an implicit block -called @var{name}; @pxref{Blocks and Exits}. -@end defspec - -@defspec defsubst* name arglist body... -This is just like @code{defun*}, except that the function that -is defined is automatically proclaimed @code{inline}, i.e., -calls to it may be expanded into in-line code by the byte compiler. -This is analogous to the @code{defsubst} form; -@code{defsubst*} uses a different method (compiler macros) which -works in all version of Emacs, and also generates somewhat more -efficient inline expansions. In particular, @code{defsubst*} -arranges for the processing of keyword arguments, default values, -etc., to be done at compile-time whenever possible. -@end defspec - -@defspec defmacro* name arglist body... -This is identical to the regular @code{defmacro} form, -except that @var{arglist} is allowed to be a full Common Lisp -argument list. The @code{&environment} keyword is supported as -described in Steele. The @code{&whole} keyword is supported only -within destructured lists (see below); top-level @code{&whole} -cannot be implemented with the current Emacs Lisp interpreter. -The macro expander body is enclosed in an implicit block called -@var{name}. -@end defspec - -@defspec function* symbol-or-lambda -This is identical to the regular @code{function} form, -except that if the argument is a @code{lambda} form then that -form may use a full Common Lisp argument list. -@end defspec - -Also, all forms (such as @code{defsetf} and @code{flet}) defined -in this package that include @var{arglist}s in their syntax allow -full Common Lisp argument lists. - -Note that it is @emph{not} necessary to use @code{defun*} in -order to have access to most @dfn{CL} features in your function. -These features are always present; @code{defun*}'s only -difference from @code{defun} is its more flexible argument -lists and its implicit block. - -The full form of a Common Lisp argument list is - -@example -(@var{var}... - &optional (@var{var} @var{initform} @var{svar})... - &rest @var{var} - &key ((@var{keyword} @var{var}) @var{initform} @var{svar})... - &aux (@var{var} @var{initform})...) -@end example - -Each of the five argument list sections is optional. The @var{svar}, -@var{initform}, and @var{keyword} parts are optional; if they are -omitted, then @samp{(@var{var})} may be written simply @samp{@var{var}}. - -The first section consists of zero or more @dfn{required} arguments. -These arguments must always be specified in a call to the function; -there is no difference between Emacs Lisp and Common Lisp as far as -required arguments are concerned. - -The second section consists of @dfn{optional} arguments. These -arguments may be specified in the function call; if they are not, -@var{initform} specifies the default value used for the argument. -(No @var{initform} means to use @code{nil} as the default.) The -@var{initform} is evaluated with the bindings for the preceding -arguments already established; @code{(a &optional (b (1+ a)))} -matches one or two arguments, with the second argument defaulting -to one plus the first argument. If the @var{svar} is specified, -it is an auxiliary variable which is bound to @code{t} if the optional -argument was specified, or to @code{nil} if the argument was omitted. -If you don't use an @var{svar}, then there will be no way for your -function to tell whether it was called with no argument, or with -the default value passed explicitly as an argument. - -The third section consists of a single @dfn{rest} argument. If -more arguments were passed to the function than are accounted for -by the required and optional arguments, those extra arguments are -collected into a list and bound to the ``rest'' argument variable. -Common Lisp's @code{&rest} is equivalent to that of Emacs Lisp. -Common Lisp accepts @code{&body} as a synonym for @code{&rest} in -macro contexts; this package accepts it all the time. - -The fourth section consists of @dfn{keyword} arguments. These -are optional arguments which are specified by name rather than -positionally in the argument list. For example, - -@example -(defun* foo (a &optional b &key c d (e 17))) -@end example - -@noindent -defines a function which may be called with one, two, or more -arguments. The first two arguments are bound to @code{a} and -@code{b} in the usual way. The remaining arguments must be -pairs of the form @code{:c}, @code{:d}, or @code{:e} followed -by the value to be bound to the corresponding argument variable. -(Symbols whose names begin with a colon are called @dfn{keywords}, -and they are self-quoting in the same way as @code{nil} and -@code{t}.) - -For example, the call @code{(foo 1 2 :d 3 :c 4)} sets the five -arguments to 1, 2, 4, 3, and 17, respectively. If the same keyword -appears more than once in the function call, the first occurrence -takes precedence over the later ones. Note that it is not possible -to specify keyword arguments without specifying the optional -argument @code{b} as well, since @code{(foo 1 :c 2)} would bind -@code{b} to the keyword @code{:c}, then signal an error because -@code{2} is not a valid keyword. - -If a @var{keyword} symbol is explicitly specified in the argument -list as shown in the above diagram, then that keyword will be -used instead of just the variable name prefixed with a colon. -You can specify a @var{keyword} symbol which does not begin with -a colon at all, but such symbols will not be self-quoting; you -will have to quote them explicitly with an apostrophe in the -function call. - -Ordinarily it is an error to pass an unrecognized keyword to -a function, e.g., @code{(foo 1 2 :c 3 :goober 4)}. You can ask -Lisp to ignore unrecognized keywords, either by adding the -marker @code{&allow-other-keys} after the keyword section -of the argument list, or by specifying an @code{:allow-other-keys} -argument in the call whose value is non-@code{nil}. If the -function uses both @code{&rest} and @code{&key} at the same time, -the ``rest'' argument is bound to the keyword list as it appears -in the call. For example: - -@smallexample -(defun* find-thing (thing &rest rest &key need &allow-other-keys) - (or (apply 'member* thing thing-list :allow-other-keys t rest) - (if need (error "Thing not found")))) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -This function takes a @code{:need} keyword argument, but also -accepts other keyword arguments which are passed on to the -@code{member*} function. @code{allow-other-keys} is used to -keep both @code{find-thing} and @code{member*} from complaining -about each others' keywords in the arguments. - -The fifth section of the argument list consists of @dfn{auxiliary -variables}. These are not really arguments at all, but simply -variables which are bound to @code{nil} or to the specified -@var{initforms} during execution of the function. There is no -difference between the following two functions, except for a -matter of stylistic taste: - -@example -(defun* foo (a b &aux (c (+ a b)) d) - @var{body}) - -(defun* foo (a b) - (let ((c (+ a b)) d) - @var{body})) -@end example - -Argument lists support @dfn{destructuring}. In Common Lisp, -destructuring is only allowed with @code{defmacro}; this package -allows it with @code{defun*} and other argument lists as well. -In destructuring, any argument variable (@var{var} in the above -diagram) can be replaced by a list of variables, or more generally, -a recursive argument list. The corresponding argument value must -be a list whose elements match this recursive argument list. -For example: - -@example -(defmacro* dolist ((var listform &optional resultform) - &rest body) - ...) -@end example - -This says that the first argument of @code{dolist} must be a list -of two or three items; if there are other arguments as well as this -list, they are stored in @code{body}. All features allowed in -regular argument lists are allowed in these recursive argument lists. -In addition, the clause @samp{&whole @var{var}} is allowed at the -front of a recursive argument list. It binds @var{var} to the -whole list being matched; thus @code{(&whole all a b)} matches -a list of two things, with @code{a} bound to the first thing, -@code{b} bound to the second thing, and @code{all} bound to the -list itself. (Common Lisp allows @code{&whole} in top-level -@code{defmacro} argument lists as well, but Emacs Lisp does not -support this usage.) - -One last feature of destructuring is that the argument list may be -dotted, so that the argument list @code{(a b . c)} is functionally -equivalent to @code{(a b &rest c)}. - -If the optimization quality @code{safety} is set to 0 -(@pxref{Declarations}), error checking for wrong number of -arguments and invalid keyword arguments is disabled. By default, -argument lists are rigorously checked. - -@node Time of Evaluation, , Argument Lists, Program Structure -@section Time of Evaluation - -@noindent -Normally, the byte-compiler does not actually execute the forms in -a file it compiles. For example, if a file contains @code{(setq foo t)}, -the act of compiling it will not actually set @code{foo} to @code{t}. -This is true even if the @code{setq} was a top-level form (i.e., not -enclosed in a @code{defun} or other form). Sometimes, though, you -would like to have certain top-level forms evaluated at compile-time. -For example, the compiler effectively evaluates @code{defmacro} forms -at compile-time so that later parts of the file can refer to the -macros that are defined. - -@defspec eval-when (situations...) forms... -This form controls when the body @var{forms} are evaluated. -The @var{situations} list may contain any set of the symbols -@code{compile}, @code{load}, and @code{eval} (or their long-winded -ANSI equivalents, @code{:compile-toplevel}, @code{:load-toplevel}, -and @code{:execute}). - -The @code{eval-when} form is handled differently depending on -whether or not it is being compiled as a top-level form. -Specifically, it gets special treatment if it is being compiled -by a command such as @code{byte-compile-file} which compiles files -or buffers of code, and it appears either literally at the -top level of the file or inside a top-level @code{progn}. - -For compiled top-level @code{eval-when}s, the body @var{forms} are -executed at compile-time if @code{compile} is in the @var{situations} -list, and the @var{forms} are written out to the file (to be executed -at load-time) if @code{load} is in the @var{situations} list. - -For non-compiled-top-level forms, only the @code{eval} situation is -relevant. (This includes forms executed by the interpreter, forms -compiled with @code{byte-compile} rather than @code{byte-compile-file}, -and non-top-level forms.) The @code{eval-when} acts like a -@code{progn} if @code{eval} is specified, and like @code{nil} -(ignoring the body @var{forms}) if not. - -The rules become more subtle when @code{eval-when}s are nested; -consult Steele (second edition) for the gruesome details (and -some gruesome examples). - -Some simple examples: - -@example -;; Top-level forms in foo.el: -(eval-when (compile) (setq foo1 'bar)) -(eval-when (load) (setq foo2 'bar)) -(eval-when (compile load) (setq foo3 'bar)) -(eval-when (eval) (setq foo4 'bar)) -(eval-when (eval compile) (setq foo5 'bar)) -(eval-when (eval load) (setq foo6 'bar)) -(eval-when (eval compile load) (setq foo7 'bar)) -@end example - -When @file{foo.el} is compiled, these variables will be set during -the compilation itself: - -@example -foo1 foo3 foo5 foo7 ; `compile' -@end example - -When @file{foo.elc} is loaded, these variables will be set: - -@example -foo2 foo3 foo6 foo7 ; `load' -@end example - -And if @file{foo.el} is loaded uncompiled, these variables will -be set: - -@example -foo4 foo5 foo6 foo7 ; `eval' -@end example - -If these seven @code{eval-when}s had been, say, inside a @code{defun}, -then the first three would have been equivalent to @code{nil} and the -last four would have been equivalent to the corresponding @code{setq}s. - -Note that @code{(eval-when (load eval) @dots{})} is equivalent -to @code{(progn @dots{})} in all contexts. The compiler treats -certain top-level forms, like @code{defmacro} (sort-of) and -@code{require}, as if they were wrapped in @code{(eval-when -(compile load eval) @dots{})}. -@end defspec - -Emacs includes two special forms related to @code{eval-when}. -One of these, @code{eval-when-compile}, is not quite equivalent to -any @code{eval-when} construct and is described below. - -The other form, @code{(eval-and-compile @dots{})}, is exactly -equivalent to @samp{(eval-when (compile load eval) @dots{})} and -so is not itself defined by this package. - -@defspec eval-when-compile forms... -The @var{forms} are evaluated at compile-time; at execution time, -this form acts like a quoted constant of the resulting value. Used -at top-level, @code{eval-when-compile} is just like @samp{eval-when -(compile eval)}. In other contexts, @code{eval-when-compile} -allows code to be evaluated once at compile-time for efficiency -or other reasons. - -This form is similar to the @samp{#.} syntax of true Common Lisp. -@end defspec - -@defspec load-time-value form -The @var{form} is evaluated at load-time; at execution time, -this form acts like a quoted constant of the resulting value. - -Early Common Lisp had a @samp{#,} syntax that was similar to -this, but ANSI Common Lisp replaced it with @code{load-time-value} -and gave it more well-defined semantics. - -In a compiled file, @code{load-time-value} arranges for @var{form} -to be evaluated when the @file{.elc} file is loaded and then used -as if it were a quoted constant. In code compiled by -@code{byte-compile} rather than @code{byte-compile-file}, the -effect is identical to @code{eval-when-compile}. In uncompiled -code, both @code{eval-when-compile} and @code{load-time-value} -act exactly like @code{progn}. - -@example -(defun report () - (insert "This function was executed on: " - (current-time-string) - ", compiled on: " - (eval-when-compile (current-time-string)) - ;; or '#.(current-time-string) in real Common Lisp - ", and loaded on: " - (load-time-value (current-time-string)))) -@end example - -@noindent -Byte-compiled, the above defun will result in the following code -(or its compiled equivalent, of course) in the @file{.elc} file: - -@example -(setq --temp-- (current-time-string)) -(defun report () - (insert "This function was executed on: " - (current-time-string) - ", compiled on: " - '"Wed Jun 23 18:33:43 1993" - ", and loaded on: " - --temp--)) -@end example -@end defspec - -@node Predicates, Control Structure, Program Structure, Top -@chapter Predicates - -@noindent -This section describes functions for testing whether various -facts are true or false. - -@menu -* Type Predicates:: `typep', `deftype', and `coerce' -* Equality Predicates:: `eql' and `equalp' -@end menu - -@node Type Predicates, Equality Predicates, Predicates, Predicates -@section Type Predicates - -@noindent -The @dfn{CL} package defines a version of the Common Lisp @code{typep} -predicate. - -@defun typep object type -Check if @var{object} is of type @var{type}, where @var{type} is a -(quoted) type name of the sort used by Common Lisp. For example, -@code{(typep foo 'integer)} is equivalent to @code{(integerp foo)}. -@end defun - -The @var{type} argument to the above function is either a symbol -or a list beginning with a symbol. - -@itemize @bullet -@item -If the type name is a symbol, Emacs appends @samp{-p} to the -symbol name to form the name of a predicate function for testing -the type. (Built-in predicates whose names end in @samp{p} rather -than @samp{-p} are used when appropriate.) - -@item -The type symbol @code{t} stands for the union of all types. -@code{(typep @var{object} t)} is always true. Likewise, the -type symbol @code{nil} stands for nothing at all, and -@code{(typep @var{object} nil)} is always false. - -@item -The type symbol @code{null} represents the symbol @code{nil}. -Thus @code{(typep @var{object} 'null)} is equivalent to -@code{(null @var{object})}. - -@item -The type symbol @code{atom} represents all objects that are not cons -cells. Thus @code{(typep @var{object} 'atom)} is equivalent to -@code{(atom @var{object})}. - -@item -The type symbol @code{real} is a synonym for @code{number}, and -@code{fixnum} is a synonym for @code{integer}. - -@item -The type symbols @code{character} and @code{string-char} match -integers in the range from 0 to 255. - -@item -The type symbol @code{float} uses the @code{floatp-safe} predicate -defined by this package rather than @code{floatp}, so it will work -correctly even in Emacs versions without floating-point support. - -@item -The type list @code{(integer @var{low} @var{high})} represents all -integers between @var{low} and @var{high}, inclusive. Either bound -may be a list of a single integer to specify an exclusive limit, -or a @code{*} to specify no limit. The type @code{(integer * *)} -is thus equivalent to @code{integer}. - -@item -Likewise, lists beginning with @code{float}, @code{real}, or -@code{number} represent numbers of that type falling in a particular -range. - -@item -Lists beginning with @code{and}, @code{or}, and @code{not} form -combinations of types. For example, @code{(or integer (float 0 *))} -represents all objects that are integers or non-negative floats. - -@item -Lists beginning with @code{member} or @code{member*} represent -objects @code{eql} to any of the following values. For example, -@code{(member 1 2 3 4)} is equivalent to @code{(integer 1 4)}, -and @code{(member nil)} is equivalent to @code{null}. - -@item -Lists of the form @code{(satisfies @var{predicate})} represent -all objects for which @var{predicate} returns true when called -with that object as an argument. -@end itemize - -The following function and macro (not technically predicates) are -related to @code{typep}. - -@defun coerce object type -This function attempts to convert @var{object} to the specified -@var{type}. If @var{object} is already of that type as determined by -@code{typep}, it is simply returned. Otherwise, certain types of -conversions will be made: If @var{type} is any sequence type -(@code{string}, @code{list}, etc.) then @var{object} will be -converted to that type if possible. If @var{type} is -@code{character}, then strings of length one and symbols with -one-character names can be coerced. If @var{type} is @code{float}, -then integers can be coerced in versions of Emacs that support -floats. In all other circumstances, @code{coerce} signals an -error. -@end defun - -@defspec deftype name arglist forms... -This macro defines a new type called @var{name}. It is similar -to @code{defmacro} in many ways; when @var{name} is encountered -as a type name, the body @var{forms} are evaluated and should -return a type specifier that is equivalent to the type. The -@var{arglist} is a Common Lisp argument list of the sort accepted -by @code{defmacro*}. The type specifier @samp{(@var{name} @var{args}...)} -is expanded by calling the expander with those arguments; the type -symbol @samp{@var{name}} is expanded by calling the expander with -no arguments. The @var{arglist} is processed the same as for -@code{defmacro*} except that optional arguments without explicit -defaults use @code{*} instead of @code{nil} as the ``default'' -default. Some examples: - -@example -(deftype null () '(satisfies null)) ; predefined -(deftype list () '(or null cons)) ; predefined -(deftype unsigned-byte (&optional bits) - (list 'integer 0 (if (eq bits '*) bits (1- (lsh 1 bits))))) -(unsigned-byte 8) @equiv{} (integer 0 255) -(unsigned-byte) @equiv{} (integer 0 *) -unsigned-byte @equiv{} (integer 0 *) -@end example - -@noindent -The last example shows how the Common Lisp @code{unsigned-byte} -type specifier could be implemented if desired; this package does -not implement @code{unsigned-byte} by default. -@end defspec - -The @code{typecase} and @code{check-type} macros also use type -names. @xref{Conditionals}. @xref{Assertions}. The @code{map}, -@code{concatenate}, and @code{merge} functions take type-name -arguments to specify the type of sequence to return. @xref{Sequences}. - -@node Equality Predicates, , Type Predicates, Predicates -@section Equality Predicates - -@noindent -This package defines two Common Lisp predicates, @code{eql} and -@code{equalp}. - -@defun eql a b -This function is almost the same as @code{eq}, except that if @var{a} -and @var{b} are numbers of the same type, it compares them for numeric -equality (as if by @code{equal} instead of @code{eq}). This makes a -difference only for versions of Emacs that are compiled with -floating-point support. Emacs floats are allocated -objects just like cons cells, which means that @code{(eq 3.0 3.0)} -will not necessarily be true---if the two @code{3.0}s were allocated -separately, the pointers will be different even though the numbers are -the same. But @code{(eql 3.0 3.0)} will always be true. - -The types of the arguments must match, so @code{(eql 3 3.0)} is -still false. - -Note that Emacs integers are ``direct'' rather than allocated, which -basically means @code{(eq 3 3)} will always be true. Thus @code{eq} -and @code{eql} behave differently only if floating-point numbers are -involved, and are indistinguishable on Emacs versions that don't -support floats. - -There is a slight inconsistency with Common Lisp in the treatment of -positive and negative zeros. Some machines, notably those with IEEE -standard arithmetic, represent @code{+0} and @code{-0} as distinct -values. Normally this doesn't matter because the standard specifies -that @code{(= 0.0 -0.0)} should always be true, and this is indeed -what Emacs Lisp and Common Lisp do. But the Common Lisp standard -states that @code{(eql 0.0 -0.0)} and @code{(equal 0.0 -0.0)} should -be false on IEEE-like machines; Emacs Lisp does not do this, and in -fact the only known way to distinguish between the two zeros in Emacs -Lisp is to @code{format} them and check for a minus sign. -@end defun - -@defun equalp a b -This function is a more flexible version of @code{equal}. In -particular, it compares strings case-insensitively, and it compares -numbers without regard to type (so that @code{(equalp 3 3.0)} is -true). Vectors and conses are compared recursively. All other -objects are compared as if by @code{equal}. - -This function differs from Common Lisp @code{equalp} in several -respects. First, Common Lisp's @code{equalp} also compares -@emph{characters} case-insensitively, which would be impractical -in this package since Emacs does not distinguish between integers -and characters. In keeping with the idea that strings are less -vector-like in Emacs Lisp, this package's @code{equalp} also will -not compare strings against vectors of integers. -@end defun - -Also note that the Common Lisp functions @code{member} and @code{assoc} -use @code{eql} to compare elements, whereas Emacs Lisp follows the -MacLisp tradition and uses @code{equal} for these two functions. -In Emacs, use @code{member*} and @code{assoc*} to get functions -which use @code{eql} for comparisons. - -@node Control Structure, Macros, Predicates, Top -@chapter Control Structure - -@noindent -The features described in the following sections implement -various advanced control structures, including the powerful -@code{setf} facility and a number of looping and conditional -constructs. - -@menu -* Assignment:: The `psetq' form -* Generalized Variables:: `setf', `incf', `push', etc. -* Variable Bindings:: `progv', `lexical-let', `flet', `macrolet' -* Conditionals:: `case', `typecase' -* Blocks and Exits:: `block', `return', `return-from' -* Iteration:: `do', `dotimes', `dolist', `do-symbols' -* Loop Facility:: The Common Lisp `loop' macro -* Multiple Values:: `values', `multiple-value-bind', etc. -@end menu - -@node Assignment, Generalized Variables, Control Structure, Control Structure -@section Assignment - -@noindent -The @code{psetq} form is just like @code{setq}, except that multiple -assignments are done in parallel rather than sequentially. - -@defspec psetq [symbol form]@dots{} -This special form (actually a macro) is used to assign to several -variables simultaneously. Given only one @var{symbol} and @var{form}, -it has the same effect as @code{setq}. Given several @var{symbol} -and @var{form} pairs, it evaluates all the @var{form}s in advance -and then stores the corresponding variables afterwards. - -@example -(setq x 2 y 3) -(setq x (+ x y) y (* x y)) -x - @result{} 5 -y ; @r{@code{y} was computed after @code{x} was set.} - @result{} 15 -(setq x 2 y 3) -(psetq x (+ x y) y (* x y)) -x - @result{} 5 -y ; @r{@code{y} was computed before @code{x} was set.} - @result{} 6 -@end example - -The simplest use of @code{psetq} is @code{(psetq x y y x)}, which -exchanges the values of two variables. (The @code{rotatef} form -provides an even more convenient way to swap two variables; -@pxref{Modify Macros}.) - -@code{psetq} always returns @code{nil}. -@end defspec - -@node Generalized Variables, Variable Bindings, Assignment, Control Structure -@section Generalized Variables - -@noindent -A ``generalized variable'' or ``place form'' is one of the many places -in Lisp memory where values can be stored. The simplest place form is -a regular Lisp variable. But the cars and cdrs of lists, elements -of arrays, properties of symbols, and many other locations are also -places where Lisp values are stored. - -The @code{setf} form is like @code{setq}, except that it accepts -arbitrary place forms on the left side rather than just -symbols. For example, @code{(setf (car a) b)} sets the car of -@code{a} to @code{b}, doing the same operation as @code{(setcar a b)} -but without having to remember two separate functions for setting -and accessing every type of place. - -Generalized variables are analogous to ``lvalues'' in the C -language, where @samp{x = a[i]} gets an element from an array -and @samp{a[i] = x} stores an element using the same notation. -Just as certain forms like @code{a[i]} can be lvalues in C, there -is a set of forms that can be generalized variables in Lisp. - -@menu -* Basic Setf:: `setf' and place forms -* Modify Macros:: `incf', `push', `rotatef', `letf', `callf', etc. -* Customizing Setf:: `define-modify-macro', `defsetf', `define-setf-method' -@end menu - -@node Basic Setf, Modify Macros, Generalized Variables, Generalized Variables -@subsection Basic Setf - -@noindent -The @code{setf} macro is the most basic way to operate on generalized -variables. - -@defspec setf [place form]@dots{} -This macro evaluates @var{form} and stores it in @var{place}, which -must be a valid generalized variable form. If there are several -@var{place} and @var{form} pairs, the assignments are done sequentially -just as with @code{setq}. @code{setf} returns the value of the last -@var{form}. - -The following Lisp forms will work as generalized variables, and -so may appear in the @var{place} argument of @code{setf}: - -@itemize @bullet -@item -A symbol naming a variable. In other words, @code{(setf x y)} is -exactly equivalent to @code{(setq x y)}, and @code{setq} itself is -strictly speaking redundant now that @code{setf} exists. Many -programmers continue to prefer @code{setq} for setting simple -variables, though, purely for stylistic or historical reasons. -The macro @code{(setf x y)} actually expands to @code{(setq x y)}, -so there is no performance penalty for using it in compiled code. - -@item -A call to any of the following Lisp functions: - -@smallexample -car cdr caar .. cddddr -nth rest first .. tenth -aref elt nthcdr -symbol-function symbol-value symbol-plist -get get* getf -gethash subseq -@end smallexample - -@noindent -Note that for @code{nthcdr} and @code{getf}, the list argument -of the function must itself be a valid @var{place} form. For -example, @code{(setf (nthcdr 0 foo) 7)} will set @code{foo} itself -to 7. Note that @code{push} and @code{pop} on an @code{nthcdr} -place can be used to insert or delete at any position in a list. -The use of @code{nthcdr} as a @var{place} form is an extension -to standard Common Lisp. - -@item -The following Emacs-specific functions are also @code{setf}-able. - -@smallexample -buffer-file-name marker-position -buffer-modified-p match-data -buffer-name mouse-position -buffer-string overlay-end -buffer-substring overlay-get -current-buffer overlay-start -current-case-table point -current-column point-marker -current-global-map point-max -current-input-mode point-min -current-local-map process-buffer -current-window-configuration process-filter -default-file-modes process-sentinel -default-value read-mouse-position -documentation-property screen-height -extent-data screen-menubar -extent-end-position screen-width -extent-start-position selected-window -face-background selected-screen -face-background-pixmap selected-frame -face-font standard-case-table -face-foreground syntax-table -face-underline-p window-buffer -file-modes window-dedicated-p -frame-height window-display-table -frame-parameters window-height -frame-visible-p window-hscroll -frame-width window-point -get-register window-start -getenv window-width -global-key-binding x-get-cut-buffer -keymap-parent x-get-cutbuffer -local-key-binding x-get-secondary-selection -mark x-get-selection -mark-marker -@end smallexample - -Most of these have directly corresponding ``set'' functions, like -@code{use-local-map} for @code{current-local-map}, or @code{goto-char} -for @code{point}. A few, like @code{point-min}, expand to longer -sequences of code when they are @code{setf}'d (@code{(narrow-to-region -x (point-max))} in this case). - -@item -A call of the form @code{(substring @var{subplace} @var{n} [@var{m}])}, -where @var{subplace} is itself a valid generalized variable whose -current value is a string, and where the value stored is also a -string. The new string is spliced into the specified part of the -destination string. For example: - -@example -(setq a (list "hello" "world")) - @result{} ("hello" "world") -(cadr a) - @result{} "world" -(substring (cadr a) 2 4) - @result{} "rl" -(setf (substring (cadr a) 2 4) "o") - @result{} "o" -(cadr a) - @result{} "wood" -a - @result{} ("hello" "wood") -@end example - -The generalized variable @code{buffer-substring}, listed above, -also works in this way by replacing a portion of the current buffer. - -@item -A call of the form @code{(apply '@var{func} @dots{})} or -@code{(apply (function @var{func}) @dots{})}, where @var{func} -is a @code{setf}-able function whose store function is ``suitable'' -in the sense described in Steele's book; since none of the standard -Emacs place functions are suitable in this sense, this feature is -only interesting when used with places you define yourself with -@code{define-setf-method} or the long form of @code{defsetf}. - -@item -A macro call, in which case the macro is expanded and @code{setf} -is applied to the resulting form. - -@item -Any form for which a @code{defsetf} or @code{define-setf-method} -has been made. -@end itemize - -Using any forms other than these in the @var{place} argument to -@code{setf} will signal an error. - -The @code{setf} macro takes care to evaluate all subforms in -the proper left-to-right order; for example, - -@example -(setf (aref vec (incf i)) i) -@end example - -@noindent -looks like it will evaluate @code{(incf i)} exactly once, before the -following access to @code{i}; the @code{setf} expander will insert -temporary variables as necessary to ensure that it does in fact work -this way no matter what setf-method is defined for @code{aref}. -(In this case, @code{aset} would be used and no such steps would -be necessary since @code{aset} takes its arguments in a convenient -order.) - -However, if the @var{place} form is a macro which explicitly -evaluates its arguments in an unusual order, this unusual order -will be preserved. Adapting an example from Steele, given - -@example -(defmacro wrong-order (x y) (list 'aref y x)) -@end example - -@noindent -the form @code{(setf (wrong-order @var{a} @var{b}) 17)} will -evaluate @var{b} first, then @var{a}, just as in an actual call -to @code{wrong-order}. -@end defspec - -@node Modify Macros, Customizing Setf, Basic Setf, Generalized Variables -@subsection Modify Macros - -@noindent -This package defines a number of other macros besides @code{setf} -that operate on generalized variables. Many are interesting and -useful even when the @var{place} is just a variable name. - -@defspec psetf [place form]@dots{} -This macro is to @code{setf} what @code{psetq} is to @code{setq}: -When several @var{place}s and @var{form}s are involved, the -assignments take place in parallel rather than sequentially. -Specifically, all subforms are evaluated from left to right, then -all the assignments are done (in an undefined order). -@end defspec - -@defspec incf place &optional x -This macro increments the number stored in @var{place} by one, or -by @var{x} if specified. The incremented value is returned. For -example, @code{(incf i)} is equivalent to @code{(setq i (1+ i))}, and -@code{(incf (car x) 2)} is equivalent to @code{(setcar x (+ (car x) 2))}. - -Once again, care is taken to preserve the ``apparent'' order of -evaluation. For example, - -@example -(incf (aref vec (incf i))) -@end example - -@noindent -appears to increment @code{i} once, then increment the element of -@code{vec} addressed by @code{i}; this is indeed exactly what it -does, which means the above form is @emph{not} equivalent to the -``obvious'' expansion, - -@example -(setf (aref vec (incf i)) (1+ (aref vec (incf i)))) ; Wrong! -@end example - -@noindent -but rather to something more like - -@example -(let ((temp (incf i))) - (setf (aref vec temp) (1+ (aref vec temp)))) -@end example - -@noindent -Again, all of this is taken care of automatically by @code{incf} and -the other generalized-variable macros. - -As a more Emacs-specific example of @code{incf}, the expression -@code{(incf (point) @var{n})} is essentially equivalent to -@code{(forward-char @var{n})}. -@end defspec - -@defspec decf place &optional x -This macro decrements the number stored in @var{place} by one, or -by @var{x} if specified. -@end defspec - -@defspec pop place -This macro removes and returns the first element of the list stored -in @var{place}. It is analogous to @code{(prog1 (car @var{place}) -(setf @var{place} (cdr @var{place})))}, except that it takes care -to evaluate all subforms only once. -@end defspec - -@defspec push x place -This macro inserts @var{x} at the front of the list stored in -@var{place}. It is analogous to @code{(setf @var{place} (cons -@var{x} @var{place}))}, except for evaluation of the subforms. -@end defspec - -@defspec pushnew x place @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This macro inserts @var{x} at the front of the list stored in -@var{place}, but only if @var{x} was not @code{eql} to any -existing element of the list. The optional keyword arguments -are interpreted in the same way as for @code{adjoin}. -@xref{Lists as Sets}. -@end defspec - -@defspec shiftf place@dots{} newvalue -This macro shifts the @var{place}s left by one, shifting in the -value of @var{newvalue} (which may be any Lisp expression, not just -a generalized variable), and returning the value shifted out of -the first @var{place}. Thus, @code{(shiftf @var{a} @var{b} @var{c} -@var{d})} is equivalent to - -@example -(prog1 - @var{a} - (psetf @var{a} @var{b} - @var{b} @var{c} - @var{c} @var{d})) -@end example - -@noindent -except that the subforms of @var{a}, @var{b}, and @var{c} are actually -evaluated only once each and in the apparent order. -@end defspec - -@defspec rotatef place@dots{} -This macro rotates the @var{place}s left by one in circular fashion. -Thus, @code{(rotatef @var{a} @var{b} @var{c} @var{d})} is equivalent to - -@example -(psetf @var{a} @var{b} - @var{b} @var{c} - @var{c} @var{d} - @var{d} @var{a}) -@end example - -@noindent -except for the evaluation of subforms. @code{rotatef} always -returns @code{nil}. Note that @code{(rotatef @var{a} @var{b})} -conveniently exchanges @var{a} and @var{b}. -@end defspec - -The following macros were invented for this package; they have no -analogues in Common Lisp. - -@defspec letf (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} -This macro is analogous to @code{let}, but for generalized variables -rather than just symbols. Each @var{binding} should be of the form -@code{(@var{place} @var{value})}; the original contents of the -@var{place}s are saved, the @var{value}s are stored in them, and -then the body @var{form}s are executed. Afterwards, the @var{places} -are set back to their original saved contents. This cleanup happens -even if the @var{form}s exit irregularly due to a @code{throw} or an -error. - -For example, - -@example -(letf (((point) (point-min)) - (a 17)) - ...) -@end example - -@noindent -moves ``point'' in the current buffer to the beginning of the buffer, -and also binds @code{a} to 17 (as if by a normal @code{let}, since -@code{a} is just a regular variable). After the body exits, @code{a} -is set back to its original value and point is moved back to its -original position. - -Note that @code{letf} on @code{(point)} is not quite like a -@code{save-excursion}, as the latter effectively saves a marker -which tracks insertions and deletions in the buffer. Actually, -a @code{letf} of @code{(point-marker)} is much closer to this -behavior. (@code{point} and @code{point-marker} are equivalent -as @code{setf} places; each will accept either an integer or a -marker as the stored value.) - -Since generalized variables look like lists, @code{let}'s shorthand -of using @samp{foo} for @samp{(foo nil)} as a @var{binding} would -be ambiguous in @code{letf} and is not allowed. - -However, a @var{binding} specifier may be a one-element list -@samp{(@var{place})}, which is similar to @samp{(@var{place} -@var{place})}. In other words, the @var{place} is not disturbed -on entry to the body, and the only effect of the @code{letf} is -to restore the original value of @var{place} afterwards. (The -redundant access-and-store suggested by the @code{(@var{place} -@var{place})} example does not actually occur.) - -In most cases, the @var{place} must have a well-defined value on -entry to the @code{letf} form. The only exceptions are plain -variables and calls to @code{symbol-value} and @code{symbol-function}. -If the symbol is not bound on entry, it is simply made unbound by -@code{makunbound} or @code{fmakunbound} on exit. -@end defspec - -@defspec letf* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} -This macro is to @code{letf} what @code{let*} is to @code{let}: -It does the bindings in sequential rather than parallel order. -@end defspec - -@defspec callf @var{function} @var{place} @var{args}@dots{} -This is the ``generic'' modify macro. It calls @var{function}, -which should be an unquoted function name, macro name, or lambda. -It passes @var{place} and @var{args} as arguments, and assigns the -result back to @var{place}. For example, @code{(incf @var{place} -@var{n})} is the same as @code{(callf + @var{place} @var{n})}. -Some more examples: - -@example -(callf abs my-number) -(callf concat (buffer-name) "<" (int-to-string n) ">") -(callf union happy-people (list joe bob) :test 'same-person) -@end example - -@xref{Customizing Setf}, for @code{define-modify-macro}, a way -to create even more concise notations for modify macros. Note -again that @code{callf} is an extension to standard Common Lisp. -@end defspec - -@defspec callf2 @var{function} @var{arg1} @var{place} @var{args}@dots{} -This macro is like @code{callf}, except that @var{place} is -the @emph{second} argument of @var{function} rather than the -first. For example, @code{(push @var{x} @var{place})} is -equivalent to @code{(callf2 cons @var{x} @var{place})}. -@end defspec - -The @code{callf} and @code{callf2} macros serve as building -blocks for other macros like @code{incf}, @code{pushnew}, and -@code{define-modify-macro}. The @code{letf} and @code{letf*} -macros are used in the processing of symbol macros; -@pxref{Macro Bindings}. - -@node Customizing Setf, , Modify Macros, Generalized Variables -@subsection Customizing Setf - -@noindent -Common Lisp defines three macros, @code{define-modify-macro}, -@code{defsetf}, and @code{define-setf-method}, that allow the -user to extend generalized variables in various ways. - -@defspec define-modify-macro name arglist function [doc-string] -This macro defines a ``read-modify-write'' macro similar to -@code{incf} and @code{decf}. The macro @var{name} is defined -to take a @var{place} argument followed by additional arguments -described by @var{arglist}. The call - -@example -(@var{name} @var{place} @var{args}...) -@end example - -@noindent -will be expanded to - -@example -(callf @var{func} @var{place} @var{args}...) -@end example - -@noindent -which in turn is roughly equivalent to - -@example -(setf @var{place} (@var{func} @var{place} @var{args}...)) -@end example - -For example: - -@example -(define-modify-macro incf (&optional (n 1)) +) -(define-modify-macro concatf (&rest args) concat) -@end example - -Note that @code{&key} is not allowed in @var{arglist}, but -@code{&rest} is sufficient to pass keywords on to the function. - -Most of the modify macros defined by Common Lisp do not exactly -follow the pattern of @code{define-modify-macro}. For example, -@code{push} takes its arguments in the wrong order, and @code{pop} -is completely irregular. You can define these macros ``by hand'' -using @code{get-setf-method}, or consult the source file -@file{cl-macs.el} to see how to use the internal @code{setf} -building blocks. -@end defspec - -@defspec defsetf access-fn update-fn -This is the simpler of two @code{defsetf} forms. Where -@var{access-fn} is the name of a function which accesses a place, -this declares @var{update-fn} to be the corresponding store -function. From now on, - -@example -(setf (@var{access-fn} @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3}) @var{value}) -@end example - -@noindent -will be expanded to - -@example -(@var{update-fn} @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3} @var{value}) -@end example - -@noindent -The @var{update-fn} is required to be either a true function, or -a macro which evaluates its arguments in a function-like way. Also, -the @var{update-fn} is expected to return @var{value} as its result. -Otherwise, the above expansion would not obey the rules for the way -@code{setf} is supposed to behave. - -As a special (non-Common-Lisp) extension, a third argument of @code{t} -to @code{defsetf} says that the @code{update-fn}'s return value is -not suitable, so that the above @code{setf} should be expanded to -something more like - -@example -(let ((temp @var{value})) - (@var{update-fn} @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3} temp) - temp) -@end example - -Some examples of the use of @code{defsetf}, drawn from the standard -suite of setf methods, are: - -@example -(defsetf car setcar) -(defsetf symbol-value set) -(defsetf buffer-name rename-buffer t) -@end example -@end defspec - -@defspec defsetf access-fn arglist (store-var) forms@dots{} -This is the second, more complex, form of @code{defsetf}. It is -rather like @code{defmacro} except for the additional @var{store-var} -argument. The @var{forms} should return a Lisp form which stores -the value of @var{store-var} into the generalized variable formed -by a call to @var{access-fn} with arguments described by @var{arglist}. -The @var{forms} may begin with a string which documents the @code{setf} -method (analogous to the doc string that appears at the front of a -function). - -For example, the simple form of @code{defsetf} is shorthand for - -@example -(defsetf @var{access-fn} (&rest args) (store) - (append '(@var{update-fn}) args (list store))) -@end example - -The Lisp form that is returned can access the arguments from -@var{arglist} and @var{store-var} in an unrestricted fashion; -macros like @code{setf} and @code{incf} which invoke this -setf-method will insert temporary variables as needed to make -sure the apparent order of evaluation is preserved. - -Another example drawn from the standard package: - -@example -(defsetf nth (n x) (store) - (list 'setcar (list 'nthcdr n x) store)) -@end example -@end defspec - -@defspec define-setf-method access-fn arglist forms@dots{} -This is the most general way to create new place forms. When -a @code{setf} to @var{access-fn} with arguments described by -@var{arglist} is expanded, the @var{forms} are evaluated and -must return a list of five items: - -@enumerate -@item -A list of @dfn{temporary variables}. - -@item -A list of @dfn{value forms} corresponding to the temporary variables -above. The temporary variables will be bound to these value forms -as the first step of any operation on the generalized variable. - -@item -A list of exactly one @dfn{store variable} (generally obtained -from a call to @code{gensym}). - -@item -A Lisp form which stores the contents of the store variable into -the generalized variable, assuming the temporaries have been -bound as described above. - -@item -A Lisp form which accesses the contents of the generalized variable, -assuming the temporaries have been bound. -@end enumerate - -This is exactly like the Common Lisp macro of the same name, -except that the method returns a list of five values rather -than the five values themselves, since Emacs Lisp does not -support Common Lisp's notion of multiple return values. - -Once again, the @var{forms} may begin with a documentation string. - -A setf-method should be maximally conservative with regard to -temporary variables. In the setf-methods generated by -@code{defsetf}, the second return value is simply the list of -arguments in the place form, and the first return value is a -list of a corresponding number of temporary variables generated -by @code{gensym}. Macros like @code{setf} and @code{incf} which -use this setf-method will optimize away most temporaries that -turn out to be unnecessary, so there is little reason for the -setf-method itself to optimize. -@end defspec - -@defun get-setf-method place &optional env -This function returns the setf-method for @var{place}, by -invoking the definition previously recorded by @code{defsetf} -or @code{define-setf-method}. The result is a list of five -values as described above. You can use this function to build -your own @code{incf}-like modify macros. (Actually, it is -better to use the internal functions @code{cl-setf-do-modify} -and @code{cl-setf-do-store}, which are a bit easier to use and -which also do a number of optimizations; consult the source -code for the @code{incf} function for a simple example.) - -The argument @var{env} specifies the ``environment'' to be -passed on to @code{macroexpand} if @code{get-setf-method} should -need to expand a macro in @var{place}. It should come from -an @code{&environment} argument to the macro or setf-method -that called @code{get-setf-method}. - -See also the source code for the setf-methods for @code{apply} -and @code{substring}, each of which works by calling -@code{get-setf-method} on a simpler case, then massaging -the result in various ways. -@end defun - -Modern Common Lisp defines a second, independent way to specify -the @code{setf} behavior of a function, namely ``@code{setf} -functions'' whose names are lists @code{(setf @var{name})} -rather than symbols. For example, @code{(defun (setf foo) @dots{})} -defines the function that is used when @code{setf} is applied to -@code{foo}. This package does not currently support @code{setf} -functions. In particular, it is a compile-time error to use -@code{setf} on a form which has not already been @code{defsetf}'d -or otherwise declared; in newer Common Lisps, this would not be -an error since the function @code{(setf @var{func})} might be -defined later. - -@iftex -@secno=4 -@end iftex - -@node Variable Bindings, Conditionals, Generalized Variables, Control Structure -@section Variable Bindings - -@noindent -These Lisp forms make bindings to variables and function names, -analogous to Lisp's built-in @code{let} form. - -@xref{Modify Macros}, for the @code{letf} and @code{letf*} forms which -are also related to variable bindings. - -@menu -* Dynamic Bindings:: The `progv' form -* Lexical Bindings:: `lexical-let' and lexical closures -* Function Bindings:: `flet' and `labels' -* Macro Bindings:: `macrolet' and `symbol-macrolet' -@end menu - -@node Dynamic Bindings, Lexical Bindings, Variable Bindings, Variable Bindings -@subsection Dynamic Bindings - -@noindent -The standard @code{let} form binds variables whose names are known -at compile-time. The @code{progv} form provides an easy way to -bind variables whose names are computed at run-time. - -@defspec progv symbols values forms@dots{} -This form establishes @code{let}-style variable bindings on a -set of variables computed at run-time. The expressions -@var{symbols} and @var{values} are evaluated, and must return lists -of symbols and values, respectively. The symbols are bound to the -corresponding values for the duration of the body @var{form}s. -If @var{values} is shorter than @var{symbols}, the last few symbols -are made unbound (as if by @code{makunbound}) inside the body. -If @var{symbols} is shorter than @var{values}, the excess values -are ignored. -@end defspec - -@node Lexical Bindings, Function Bindings, Dynamic Bindings, Variable Bindings -@subsection Lexical Bindings - -@noindent -The @dfn{CL} package defines the following macro which -more closely follows the Common Lisp @code{let} form: - -@defspec lexical-let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} -This form is exactly like @code{let} except that the bindings it -establishes are purely lexical. Lexical bindings are similar to -local variables in a language like C: Only the code physically -within the body of the @code{lexical-let} (after macro expansion) -may refer to the bound variables. - -@example -(setq a 5) -(defun foo (b) (+ a b)) -(let ((a 2)) (foo a)) - @result{} 4 -(lexical-let ((a 2)) (foo a)) - @result{} 7 -@end example - -@noindent -In this example, a regular @code{let} binding of @code{a} actually -makes a temporary change to the global variable @code{a}, so @code{foo} -is able to see the binding of @code{a} to 2. But @code{lexical-let} -actually creates a distinct local variable @code{a} for use within its -body, without any effect on the global variable of the same name. - -The most important use of lexical bindings is to create @dfn{closures}. -A closure is a function object that refers to an outside lexical -variable. For example: - -@example -(defun make-adder (n) - (lexical-let ((n n)) - (function (lambda (m) (+ n m))))) -(setq add17 (make-adder 17)) -(funcall add17 4) - @result{} 21 -@end example - -@noindent -The call @code{(make-adder 17)} returns a function object which adds -17 to its argument. If @code{let} had been used instead of -@code{lexical-let}, the function object would have referred to the -global @code{n}, which would have been bound to 17 only during the -call to @code{make-adder} itself. - -@example -(defun make-counter () - (lexical-let ((n 0)) - (function* (lambda (&optional (m 1)) (incf n m))))) -(setq count-1 (make-counter)) -(funcall count-1 3) - @result{} 3 -(funcall count-1 14) - @result{} 17 -(setq count-2 (make-counter)) -(funcall count-2 5) - @result{} 5 -(funcall count-1 2) - @result{} 19 -(funcall count-2) - @result{} 6 -@end example - -@noindent -Here we see that each call to @code{make-counter} creates a distinct -local variable @code{n}, which serves as a private counter for the -function object that is returned. - -Closed-over lexical variables persist until the last reference to -them goes away, just like all other Lisp objects. For example, -@code{count-2} refers to a function object which refers to an -instance of the variable @code{n}; this is the only reference -to that variable, so after @code{(setq count-2 nil)} the garbage -collector would be able to delete this instance of @code{n}. -Of course, if a @code{lexical-let} does not actually create any -closures, then the lexical variables are free as soon as the -@code{lexical-let} returns. - -Many closures are used only during the extent of the bindings they -refer to; these are known as ``downward funargs'' in Lisp parlance. -When a closure is used in this way, regular Emacs Lisp dynamic -bindings suffice and will be more efficient than @code{lexical-let} -closures: - -@example -(defun add-to-list (x list) - (mapcar (lambda (y) (+ x y))) list) -(add-to-list 7 '(1 2 5)) - @result{} (8 9 12) -@end example - -@noindent -Since this lambda is only used while @code{x} is still bound, -it is not necessary to make a true closure out of it. - -You can use @code{defun} or @code{flet} inside a @code{lexical-let} -to create a named closure. If several closures are created in the -body of a single @code{lexical-let}, they all close over the same -instance of the lexical variable. - -The @code{lexical-let} form is an extension to Common Lisp. In -true Common Lisp, all bindings are lexical unless declared otherwise. -@end defspec - -@defspec lexical-let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} -This form is just like @code{lexical-let}, except that the bindings -are made sequentially in the manner of @code{let*}. -@end defspec - -@node Function Bindings, Macro Bindings, Lexical Bindings, Variable Bindings -@subsection Function Bindings - -@noindent -These forms make @code{let}-like bindings to functions instead -of variables. - -@defspec flet (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} -This form establishes @code{let}-style bindings on the function -cells of symbols rather than on the value cells. Each @var{binding} -must be a list of the form @samp{(@var{name} @var{arglist} -@var{forms}@dots{})}, which defines a function exactly as if -it were a @code{defun*} form. The function @var{name} is defined -accordingly for the duration of the body of the @code{flet}; then -the old function definition, or lack thereof, is restored. - -While @code{flet} in Common Lisp establishes a lexical binding of -@var{name}, Emacs Lisp @code{flet} makes a dynamic binding. The -result is that @code{flet} affects indirect calls to a function as -well as calls directly inside the @code{flet} form itself. - -You can use @code{flet} to disable or modify the behavior of a -function in a temporary fashion. This will even work on Emacs -primitives, although note that some calls to primitive functions -internal to Emacs are made without going through the symbol's -function cell, and so will not be affected by @code{flet}. For -example, - -@example -(flet ((message (&rest args) (push args saved-msgs))) - (do-something)) -@end example - -This code attempts to replace the built-in function @code{message} -with a function that simply saves the messages in a list rather -than displaying them. The original definition of @code{message} -will be restored after @code{do-something} exits. This code will -work fine on messages generated by other Lisp code, but messages -generated directly inside Emacs will not be caught since they make -direct C-language calls to the message routines rather than going -through the Lisp @code{message} function. - -Functions defined by @code{flet} may use the full Common Lisp -argument notation supported by @code{defun*}; also, the function -body is enclosed in an implicit block as if by @code{defun*}. -@xref{Program Structure}. -@end defspec - -@defspec labels (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} -The @code{labels} form is like @code{flet}, except that it -makes lexical bindings of the function names rather than -dynamic bindings. (In true Common Lisp, both @code{flet} and -@code{labels} make lexical bindings of slightly different sorts; -since Emacs Lisp is dynamically bound by default, it seemed -more appropriate for @code{flet} also to use dynamic binding. -The @code{labels} form, with its lexical binding, is fully -compatible with Common Lisp.) - -Lexical scoping means that all references to the named -functions must appear physically within the body of the -@code{labels} form. References may appear both in the body -@var{forms} of @code{labels} itself, and in the bodies of -the functions themselves. Thus, @code{labels} can define -local recursive functions, or mutually-recursive sets of -functions. - -A ``reference'' to a function name is either a call to that -function, or a use of its name quoted by @code{quote} or -@code{function} to be passed on to, say, @code{mapcar}. -@end defspec - -@node Macro Bindings, , Function Bindings, Variable Bindings -@subsection Macro Bindings - -@noindent -These forms create local macros and ``symbol macros.'' - -@defspec macrolet (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} -This form is analogous to @code{flet}, but for macros instead of -functions. Each @var{binding} is a list of the same form as the -arguments to @code{defmacro*} (i.e., a macro name, argument list, -and macro-expander forms). The macro is defined accordingly for -use within the body of the @code{macrolet}. - -Because of the nature of macros, @code{macrolet} is lexically -scoped even in Emacs Lisp: The @code{macrolet} binding will -affect only calls that appear physically within the body -@var{forms}, possibly after expansion of other macros in the -body. -@end defspec - -@defspec symbol-macrolet (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} -This form creates @dfn{symbol macros}, which are macros that look -like variable references rather than function calls. Each -@var{binding} is a list @samp{(@var{var} @var{expansion})}; -any reference to @var{var} within the body @var{forms} is -replaced by @var{expansion}. - -@example -(setq bar '(5 . 9)) -(symbol-macrolet ((foo (car bar))) - (incf foo)) -bar - @result{} (6 . 9) -@end example - -A @code{setq} of a symbol macro is treated the same as a @code{setf}. -I.e., @code{(setq foo 4)} in the above would be equivalent to -@code{(setf foo 4)}, which in turn expands to @code{(setf (car bar) 4)}. - -Likewise, a @code{let} or @code{let*} binding a symbol macro is -treated like a @code{letf} or @code{letf*}. This differs from true -Common Lisp, where the rules of lexical scoping cause a @code{let} -binding to shadow a @code{symbol-macrolet} binding. In this package, -only @code{lexical-let} and @code{lexical-let*} will shadow a symbol -macro. - -There is no analogue of @code{defmacro} for symbol macros; all symbol -macros are local. A typical use of @code{symbol-macrolet} is in the -expansion of another macro: - -@example -(defmacro* my-dolist ((x list) &rest body) - (let ((var (gensym))) - (list 'loop 'for var 'on list 'do - (list* 'symbol-macrolet (list (list x (list 'car var))) - body)))) - -(setq mylist '(1 2 3 4)) -(my-dolist (x mylist) (incf x)) -mylist - @result{} (2 3 4 5) -@end example - -@noindent -In this example, the @code{my-dolist} macro is similar to @code{dolist} -(@pxref{Iteration}) except that the variable @code{x} becomes a true -reference onto the elements of the list. The @code{my-dolist} call -shown here expands to - -@example -(loop for G1234 on mylist do - (symbol-macrolet ((x (car G1234))) - (incf x))) -@end example - -@noindent -which in turn expands to - -@example -(loop for G1234 on mylist do (incf (car G1234))) -@end example - -@xref{Loop Facility}, for a description of the @code{loop} macro. -This package defines a nonstandard @code{in-ref} loop clause that -works much like @code{my-dolist}. -@end defspec - -@node Conditionals, Blocks and Exits, Variable Bindings, Control Structure -@section Conditionals - -@noindent -These conditional forms augment Emacs Lisp's simple @code{if}, -@code{and}, @code{or}, and @code{cond} forms. - -@defspec case keyform clause@dots{} -This macro evaluates @var{keyform}, then compares it with the key -values listed in the various @var{clause}s. Whichever clause matches -the key is executed; comparison is done by @code{eql}. If no clause -matches, the @code{case} form returns @code{nil}. The clauses are -of the form - -@example -(@var{keylist} @var{body-forms}@dots{}) -@end example - -@noindent -where @var{keylist} is a list of key values. If there is exactly -one value, and it is not a cons cell or the symbol @code{nil} or -@code{t}, then it can be used by itself as a @var{keylist} without -being enclosed in a list. All key values in the @code{case} form -must be distinct. The final clauses may use @code{t} in place of -a @var{keylist} to indicate a default clause that should be taken -if none of the other clauses match. (The symbol @code{otherwise} -is also recognized in place of @code{t}. To make a clause that -matches the actual symbol @code{t}, @code{nil}, or @code{otherwise}, -enclose the symbol in a list.) - -For example, this expression reads a keystroke, then does one of -four things depending on whether it is an @samp{a}, a @samp{b}, -a @key{RET} or @kbd{C-j}, or anything else. - -@example -(case (read-char) - (?a (do-a-thing)) - (?b (do-b-thing)) - ((?\r ?\n) (do-ret-thing)) - (t (do-other-thing))) -@end example -@end defspec - -@defspec ecase keyform clause@dots{} -This macro is just like @code{case}, except that if the key does -not match any of the clauses, an error is signaled rather than -simply returning @code{nil}. -@end defspec - -@defspec typecase keyform clause@dots{} -This macro is a version of @code{case} that checks for types -rather than values. Each @var{clause} is of the form -@samp{(@var{type} @var{body}...)}. @xref{Type Predicates}, -for a description of type specifiers. For example, - -@example -(typecase x - (integer (munch-integer x)) - (float (munch-float x)) - (string (munch-integer (string-to-int x))) - (t (munch-anything x))) -@end example - -The type specifier @code{t} matches any type of object; the word -@code{otherwise} is also allowed. To make one clause match any of -several types, use an @code{(or ...)} type specifier. -@end defspec - -@defspec etypecase keyform clause@dots{} -This macro is just like @code{typecase}, except that if the key does -not match any of the clauses, an error is signaled rather than -simply returning @code{nil}. -@end defspec - -@node Blocks and Exits, Iteration, Conditionals, Control Structure -@section Blocks and Exits - -@noindent -Common Lisp @dfn{blocks} provide a non-local exit mechanism very -similar to @code{catch} and @code{throw}, but lexically rather than -dynamically scoped. This package actually implements @code{block} -in terms of @code{catch}; however, the lexical scoping allows the -optimizing byte-compiler to omit the costly @code{catch} step if the -body of the block does not actually @code{return-from} the block. - -@defspec block name forms@dots{} -The @var{forms} are evaluated as if by a @code{progn}. However, -if any of the @var{forms} execute @code{(return-from @var{name})}, -they will jump out and return directly from the @code{block} form. -The @code{block} returns the result of the last @var{form} unless -a @code{return-from} occurs. - -The @code{block}/@code{return-from} mechanism is quite similar to -the @code{catch}/@code{throw} mechanism. The main differences are -that block @var{name}s are unevaluated symbols, rather than forms -(such as quoted symbols) which evaluate to a tag at run-time; and -also that blocks are lexically scoped whereas @code{catch}/@code{throw} -are dynamically scoped. This means that functions called from the -body of a @code{catch} can also @code{throw} to the @code{catch}, -but the @code{return-from} referring to a block name must appear -physically within the @var{forms} that make up the body of the block. -They may not appear within other called functions, although they may -appear within macro expansions or @code{lambda}s in the body. Block -names and @code{catch} names form independent name-spaces. - -In true Common Lisp, @code{defun} and @code{defmacro} surround -the function or expander bodies with implicit blocks with the -same name as the function or macro. This does not occur in Emacs -Lisp, but this package provides @code{defun*} and @code{defmacro*} -forms which do create the implicit block. - -The Common Lisp looping constructs defined by this package, -such as @code{loop} and @code{dolist}, also create implicit blocks -just as in Common Lisp. - -Because they are implemented in terms of Emacs Lisp @code{catch} -and @code{throw}, blocks have the same overhead as actual -@code{catch} constructs (roughly two function calls). However, -the optimizing byte compiler will optimize away the @code{catch} -if the block does -not in fact contain any @code{return} or @code{return-from} calls -that jump to it. This means that @code{do} loops and @code{defun*} -functions which don't use @code{return} don't pay the overhead to -support it. -@end defspec - -@defspec return-from name [result] -This macro returns from the block named @var{name}, which must be -an (unevaluated) symbol. If a @var{result} form is specified, it -is evaluated to produce the result returned from the @code{block}. -Otherwise, @code{nil} is returned. -@end defspec - -@defspec return [result] -This macro is exactly like @code{(return-from nil @var{result})}. -Common Lisp loops like @code{do} and @code{dolist} implicitly enclose -themselves in @code{nil} blocks. -@end defspec - -@node Iteration, Loop Facility, Blocks and Exits, Control Structure -@section Iteration - -@noindent -The macros described here provide more sophisticated, high-level -looping constructs to complement Emacs Lisp's basic @code{while} -loop. - -@defspec loop forms@dots{} -The @dfn{CL} package supports both the simple, old-style meaning of -@code{loop} and the extremely powerful and flexible feature known as -the @dfn{Loop Facility} or @dfn{Loop Macro}. This more advanced -facility is discussed in the following section; @pxref{Loop Facility}. -The simple form of @code{loop} is described here. - -If @code{loop} is followed by zero or more Lisp expressions, -then @code{(loop @var{exprs}@dots{})} simply creates an infinite -loop executing the expressions over and over. The loop is -enclosed in an implicit @code{nil} block. Thus, - -@example -(loop (foo) (if (no-more) (return 72)) (bar)) -@end example - -@noindent -is exactly equivalent to - -@example -(block nil (while t (foo) (if (no-more) (return 72)) (bar))) -@end example - -If any of the expressions are plain symbols, the loop is instead -interpreted as a Loop Macro specification as described later. -(This is not a restriction in practice, since a plain symbol -in the above notation would simply access and throw away the -value of a variable.) -@end defspec - -@defspec do (spec@dots{}) (end-test [result@dots{}]) forms@dots{} -This macro creates a general iterative loop. Each @var{spec} is -of the form - -@example -(@var{var} [@var{init} [@var{step}]]) -@end example - -The loop works as follows: First, each @var{var} is bound to the -associated @var{init} value as if by a @code{let} form. Then, in -each iteration of the loop, the @var{end-test} is evaluated; if -true, the loop is finished. Otherwise, the body @var{forms} are -evaluated, then each @var{var} is set to the associated @var{step} -expression (as if by a @code{psetq} form) and the next iteration -begins. Once the @var{end-test} becomes true, the @var{result} -forms are evaluated (with the @var{var}s still bound to their -values) to produce the result returned by @code{do}. - -The entire @code{do} loop is enclosed in an implicit @code{nil} -block, so that you can use @code{(return)} to break out of the -loop at any time. - -If there are no @var{result} forms, the loop returns @code{nil}. -If a given @var{var} has no @var{step} form, it is bound to its -@var{init} value but not otherwise modified during the @code{do} -loop (unless the code explicitly modifies it); this case is just -a shorthand for putting a @code{(let ((@var{var} @var{init})) @dots{})} -around the loop. If @var{init} is also omitted it defaults to -@code{nil}, and in this case a plain @samp{@var{var}} can be used -in place of @samp{(@var{var})}, again following the analogy with -@code{let}. - -This example (from Steele) illustrates a loop which applies the -function @code{f} to successive pairs of values from the lists -@code{foo} and @code{bar}; it is equivalent to the call -@code{(mapcar* 'f foo bar)}. Note that this loop has no body -@var{forms} at all, performing all its work as side effects of -the rest of the loop. - -@example -(do ((x foo (cdr x)) - (y bar (cdr y)) - (z nil (cons (f (car x) (car y)) z))) - ((or (null x) (null y)) - (nreverse z))) -@end example -@end defspec - -@defspec do* (spec@dots{}) (end-test [result@dots{}]) forms@dots{} -This is to @code{do} what @code{let*} is to @code{let}. In -particular, the initial values are bound as if by @code{let*} -rather than @code{let}, and the steps are assigned as if by -@code{setq} rather than @code{psetq}. - -Here is another way to write the above loop: - -@example -(do* ((xp foo (cdr xp)) - (yp bar (cdr yp)) - (x (car xp) (car xp)) - (y (car yp) (car yp)) - z) - ((or (null xp) (null yp)) - (nreverse z)) - (push (f x y) z)) -@end example -@end defspec - -@defspec dolist (var list [result]) forms@dots{} -This is a more specialized loop which iterates across the elements -of a list. @var{list} should evaluate to a list; the body @var{forms} -are executed with @var{var} bound to each element of the list in -turn. Finally, the @var{result} form (or @code{nil}) is evaluated -with @var{var} bound to @code{nil} to produce the result returned by -the loop. Unlike with Emacs's built in @code{dolist}, the loop is -surrounded by an implicit @code{nil} block. -@end defspec - -@defspec dotimes (var count [result]) forms@dots{} -This is a more specialized loop which iterates a specified number -of times. The body is executed with @var{var} bound to the integers -from zero (inclusive) to @var{count} (exclusive), in turn. Then -the @code{result} form is evaluated with @var{var} bound to the total -number of iterations that were done (i.e., @code{(max 0 @var{count})}) -to get the return value for the loop form. Unlike with Emacs's built in -@code{dolist}, the loop is surrounded by an implicit @code{nil} block. -@end defspec - -@defspec do-symbols (var [obarray [result]]) forms@dots{} -This loop iterates over all interned symbols. If @var{obarray} -is specified and is not @code{nil}, it loops over all symbols in -that obarray. For each symbol, the body @var{forms} are evaluated -with @var{var} bound to that symbol. The symbols are visited in -an unspecified order. Afterward the @var{result} form, if any, -is evaluated (with @var{var} bound to @code{nil}) to get the return -value. The loop is surrounded by an implicit @code{nil} block. -@end defspec - -@defspec do-all-symbols (var [result]) forms@dots{} -This is identical to @code{do-symbols} except that the @var{obarray} -argument is omitted; it always iterates over the default obarray. -@end defspec - -@xref{Mapping over Sequences}, for some more functions for -iterating over vectors or lists. - -@node Loop Facility, Multiple Values, Iteration, Control Structure -@section Loop Facility - -@noindent -A common complaint with Lisp's traditional looping constructs is -that they are either too simple and limited, such as Common Lisp's -@code{dotimes} or Emacs Lisp's @code{while}, or too unreadable and -obscure, like Common Lisp's @code{do} loop. - -To remedy this, recent versions of Common Lisp have added a new -construct called the ``Loop Facility'' or ``@code{loop} macro,'' -with an easy-to-use but very powerful and expressive syntax. - -@menu -* Loop Basics:: `loop' macro, basic clause structure -* Loop Examples:: Working examples of `loop' macro -* For Clauses:: Clauses introduced by `for' or `as' -* Iteration Clauses:: `repeat', `while', `thereis', etc. -* Accumulation Clauses:: `collect', `sum', `maximize', etc. -* Other Clauses:: `with', `if', `initially', `finally' -@end menu - -@node Loop Basics, Loop Examples, Loop Facility, Loop Facility -@subsection Loop Basics - -@noindent -The @code{loop} macro essentially creates a mini-language within -Lisp that is specially tailored for describing loops. While this -language is a little strange-looking by the standards of regular Lisp, -it turns out to be very easy to learn and well-suited to its purpose. - -Since @code{loop} is a macro, all parsing of the loop language -takes place at byte-compile time; compiled @code{loop}s are just -as efficient as the equivalent @code{while} loops written longhand. - -@defspec loop clauses@dots{} -A loop construct consists of a series of @var{clause}s, each -introduced by a symbol like @code{for} or @code{do}. Clauses -are simply strung together in the argument list of @code{loop}, -with minimal extra parentheses. The various types of clauses -specify initializations, such as the binding of temporary -variables, actions to be taken in the loop, stepping actions, -and final cleanup. - -Common Lisp specifies a certain general order of clauses in a -loop: - -@example -(loop @var{name-clause} - @var{var-clauses}@dots{} - @var{action-clauses}@dots{}) -@end example - -The @var{name-clause} optionally gives a name to the implicit -block that surrounds the loop. By default, the implicit block -is named @code{nil}. The @var{var-clauses} specify what -variables should be bound during the loop, and how they should -be modified or iterated throughout the course of the loop. The -@var{action-clauses} are things to be done during the loop, such -as computing, collecting, and returning values. - -The Emacs version of the @code{loop} macro is less restrictive about -the order of clauses, but things will behave most predictably if -you put the variable-binding clauses @code{with}, @code{for}, and -@code{repeat} before the action clauses. As in Common Lisp, -@code{initially} and @code{finally} clauses can go anywhere. - -Loops generally return @code{nil} by default, but you can cause -them to return a value by using an accumulation clause like -@code{collect}, an end-test clause like @code{always}, or an -explicit @code{return} clause to jump out of the implicit block. -(Because the loop body is enclosed in an implicit block, you can -also use regular Lisp @code{return} or @code{return-from} to -break out of the loop.) -@end defspec - -The following sections give some examples of the Loop Macro in -action, and describe the particular loop clauses in great detail. -Consult the second edition of Steele's @dfn{Common Lisp, the Language}, -for additional discussion and examples of the @code{loop} macro. - -@node Loop Examples, For Clauses, Loop Basics, Loop Facility -@subsection Loop Examples - -@noindent -Before listing the full set of clauses that are allowed, let's -look at a few example loops just to get a feel for the @code{loop} -language. - -@example -(loop for buf in (buffer-list) - collect (buffer-file-name buf)) -@end example - -@noindent -This loop iterates over all Emacs buffers, using the list -returned by @code{buffer-list}. For each buffer @code{buf}, -it calls @code{buffer-file-name} and collects the results into -a list, which is then returned from the @code{loop} construct. -The result is a list of the file names of all the buffers in -Emacs' memory. The words @code{for}, @code{in}, and @code{collect} -are reserved words in the @code{loop} language. - -@example -(loop repeat 20 do (insert "Yowsa\n")) -@end example - -@noindent -This loop inserts the phrase ``Yowsa'' twenty times in the -current buffer. - -@example -(loop until (eobp) do (munch-line) (forward-line 1)) -@end example - -@noindent -This loop calls @code{munch-line} on every line until the end -of the buffer. If point is already at the end of the buffer, -the loop exits immediately. - -@example -(loop do (munch-line) until (eobp) do (forward-line 1)) -@end example - -@noindent -This loop is similar to the above one, except that @code{munch-line} -is always called at least once. - -@example -(loop for x from 1 to 100 - for y = (* x x) - until (>= y 729) - finally return (list x (= y 729))) -@end example - -@noindent -This more complicated loop searches for a number @code{x} whose -square is 729. For safety's sake it only examines @code{x} -values up to 100; dropping the phrase @samp{to 100} would -cause the loop to count upwards with no limit. The second -@code{for} clause defines @code{y} to be the square of @code{x} -within the loop; the expression after the @code{=} sign is -reevaluated each time through the loop. The @code{until} -clause gives a condition for terminating the loop, and the -@code{finally} clause says what to do when the loop finishes. -(This particular example was written less concisely than it -could have been, just for the sake of illustration.) - -Note that even though this loop contains three clauses (two -@code{for}s and an @code{until}) that would have been enough to -define loops all by themselves, it still creates a single loop -rather than some sort of triple-nested loop. You must explicitly -nest your @code{loop} constructs if you want nested loops. - -@node For Clauses, Iteration Clauses, Loop Examples, Loop Facility -@subsection For Clauses - -@noindent -Most loops are governed by one or more @code{for} clauses. -A @code{for} clause simultaneously describes variables to be -bound, how those variables are to be stepped during the loop, -and usually an end condition based on those variables. - -The word @code{as} is a synonym for the word @code{for}. This -word is followed by a variable name, then a word like @code{from} -or @code{across} that describes the kind of iteration desired. -In Common Lisp, the phrase @code{being the} sometimes precedes -the type of iteration; in this package both @code{being} and -@code{the} are optional. The word @code{each} is a synonym -for @code{the}, and the word that follows it may be singular -or plural: @samp{for x being the elements of y} or -@samp{for x being each element of y}. Which form you use -is purely a matter of style. - -The variable is bound around the loop as if by @code{let}: - -@example -(setq i 'happy) -(loop for i from 1 to 10 do (do-something-with i)) -i - @result{} happy -@end example - -@table @code -@item for @var{var} from @var{expr1} to @var{expr2} by @var{expr3} -This type of @code{for} clause creates a counting loop. Each of -the three sub-terms is optional, though there must be at least one -term so that the clause is marked as a counting clause. - -The three expressions are the starting value, the ending value, and -the step value, respectively, of the variable. The loop counts -upwards by default (@var{expr3} must be positive), from @var{expr1} -to @var{expr2} inclusively. If you omit the @code{from} term, the -loop counts from zero; if you omit the @code{to} term, the loop -counts forever without stopping (unless stopped by some other -loop clause, of course); if you omit the @code{by} term, the loop -counts in steps of one. - -You can replace the word @code{from} with @code{upfrom} or -@code{downfrom} to indicate the direction of the loop. Likewise, -you can replace @code{to} with @code{upto} or @code{downto}. -For example, @samp{for x from 5 downto 1} executes five times -with @code{x} taking on the integers from 5 down to 1 in turn. -Also, you can replace @code{to} with @code{below} or @code{above}, -which are like @code{upto} and @code{downto} respectively except -that they are exclusive rather than inclusive limits: - -@example -(loop for x to 10 collect x) - @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10) -(loop for x below 10 collect x) - @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9) -@end example - -The @code{by} value is always positive, even for downward-counting -loops. Some sort of @code{from} value is required for downward -loops; @samp{for x downto 5} is not a valid loop clause all by -itself. - -@item for @var{var} in @var{list} by @var{function} -This clause iterates @var{var} over all the elements of @var{list}, -in turn. If you specify the @code{by} term, then @var{function} -is used to traverse the list instead of @code{cdr}; it must be a -function taking one argument. For example: - -@example -(loop for x in '(1 2 3 4 5 6) collect (* x x)) - @result{} (1 4 9 16 25 36) -(loop for x in '(1 2 3 4 5 6) by 'cddr collect (* x x)) - @result{} (1 9 25) -@end example - -@item for @var{var} on @var{list} by @var{function} -This clause iterates @var{var} over all the cons cells of @var{list}. - -@example -(loop for x on '(1 2 3 4) collect x) - @result{} ((1 2 3 4) (2 3 4) (3 4) (4)) -@end example - -With @code{by}, there is no real reason that the @code{on} expression -must be a list. For example: - -@example -(loop for x on first-animal by 'next-animal collect x) -@end example - -@noindent -where @code{(next-animal x)} takes an ``animal'' @var{x} and returns -the next in the (assumed) sequence of animals, or @code{nil} if -@var{x} was the last animal in the sequence. - -@item for @var{var} in-ref @var{list} by @var{function} -This is like a regular @code{in} clause, but @var{var} becomes -a @code{setf}-able ``reference'' onto the elements of the list -rather than just a temporary variable. For example, - -@example -(loop for x in-ref my-list do (incf x)) -@end example - -@noindent -increments every element of @code{my-list} in place. This clause -is an extension to standard Common Lisp. - -@item for @var{var} across @var{array} -This clause iterates @var{var} over all the elements of @var{array}, -which may be a vector or a string. - -@example -(loop for x across "aeiou" - do (use-vowel (char-to-string x))) -@end example - -@item for @var{var} across-ref @var{array} -This clause iterates over an array, with @var{var} a @code{setf}-able -reference onto the elements; see @code{in-ref} above. - -@item for @var{var} being the elements of @var{sequence} -This clause iterates over the elements of @var{sequence}, which may -be a list, vector, or string. Since the type must be determined -at run-time, this is somewhat less efficient than @code{in} or -@code{across}. The clause may be followed by the additional term -@samp{using (index @var{var2})} to cause @var{var2} to be bound to -the successive indices (starting at 0) of the elements. - -This clause type is taken from older versions of the @code{loop} macro, -and is not present in modern Common Lisp. The @samp{using (sequence ...)} -term of the older macros is not supported. - -@item for @var{var} being the elements of-ref @var{sequence} -This clause iterates over a sequence, with @var{var} a @code{setf}-able -reference onto the elements; see @code{in-ref} above. - -@item for @var{var} being the symbols [of @var{obarray}] -This clause iterates over symbols, either over all interned symbols -or over all symbols in @var{obarray}. The loop is executed with -@var{var} bound to each symbol in turn. The symbols are visited in -an unspecified order. - -As an example, - -@example -(loop for sym being the symbols - when (fboundp sym) - when (string-match "^map" (symbol-name sym)) - collect sym) -@end example - -@noindent -returns a list of all the functions whose names begin with @samp{map}. - -The Common Lisp words @code{external-symbols} and @code{present-symbols} -are also recognized but are equivalent to @code{symbols} in Emacs Lisp. - -Due to a minor implementation restriction, it will not work to have -more than one @code{for} clause iterating over symbols, hash tables, -keymaps, overlays, or intervals in a given @code{loop}. Fortunately, -it would rarely if ever be useful to do so. It @emph{is} valid to mix -one of these types of clauses with other clauses like @code{for ... to} -or @code{while}. - -@item for @var{var} being the hash-keys of @var{hash-table} -This clause iterates over the entries in @var{hash-table}. For each -hash table entry, @var{var} is bound to the entry's key. If you write -@samp{the hash-values} instead, @var{var} is bound to the values -of the entries. The clause may be followed by the additional -term @samp{using (hash-values @var{var2})} (where @code{hash-values} -is the opposite word of the word following @code{the}) to cause -@var{var} and @var{var2} to be bound to the two parts of each -hash table entry. - -@item for @var{var} being the key-codes of @var{keymap} -This clause iterates over the entries in @var{keymap}. -The iteration does not enter nested keymaps or inherited (parent) keymaps. -You can use @samp{the key-bindings} to access the commands bound to -the keys rather than the key codes, and you can add a @code{using} -clause to access both the codes and the bindings together. - -@item for @var{var} being the key-seqs of @var{keymap} -This clause iterates over all key sequences defined by @var{keymap} -and its nested keymaps, where @var{var} takes on values which are -vectors. The strings or vectors -are reused for each iteration, so you must copy them if you wish to keep -them permanently. You can add a @samp{using (key-bindings ...)} -clause to get the command bindings as well. - -@item for @var{var} being the overlays [of @var{buffer}] @dots{} -This clause iterates over the ``overlays'' of a buffer -(the clause @code{extents} is synonymous -with @code{overlays}). If the @code{of} term is omitted, the current -buffer is used. -This clause also accepts optional @samp{from @var{pos}} and -@samp{to @var{pos}} terms, limiting the clause to overlays which -overlap the specified region. - -@item for @var{var} being the intervals [of @var{buffer}] @dots{} -This clause iterates over all intervals of a buffer with constant -text properties. The variable @var{var} will be bound to conses -of start and end positions, where one start position is always equal -to the previous end position. The clause allows @code{of}, -@code{from}, @code{to}, and @code{property} terms, where the latter -term restricts the search to just the specified property. The -@code{of} term may specify either a buffer or a string. - -@item for @var{var} being the frames -This clause iterates over all frames, i.e., X window system windows -open on Emacs files. The -clause @code{screens} is a synonym for @code{frames}. The frames -are visited in @code{next-frame} order starting from -@code{selected-frame}. - -@item for @var{var} being the windows [of @var{frame}] -This clause iterates over the windows (in the Emacs sense) of -the current frame, or of the specified @var{frame}. - -@item for @var{var} being the buffers -This clause iterates over all buffers in Emacs. It is equivalent -to @samp{for @var{var} in (buffer-list)}. - -@item for @var{var} = @var{expr1} then @var{expr2} -This clause does a general iteration. The first time through -the loop, @var{var} will be bound to @var{expr1}. On the second -and successive iterations it will be set by evaluating @var{expr2} -(which may refer to the old value of @var{var}). For example, -these two loops are effectively the same: - -@example -(loop for x on my-list by 'cddr do ...) -(loop for x = my-list then (cddr x) while x do ...) -@end example - -Note that this type of @code{for} clause does not imply any sort -of terminating condition; the above example combines it with a -@code{while} clause to tell when to end the loop. - -If you omit the @code{then} term, @var{expr1} is used both for -the initial setting and for successive settings: - -@example -(loop for x = (random) when (> x 0) return x) -@end example - -@noindent -This loop keeps taking random numbers from the @code{(random)} -function until it gets a positive one, which it then returns. -@end table - -If you include several @code{for} clauses in a row, they are -treated sequentially (as if by @code{let*} and @code{setq}). -You can instead use the word @code{and} to link the clauses, -in which case they are processed in parallel (as if by @code{let} -and @code{psetq}). - -@example -(loop for x below 5 for y = nil then x collect (list x y)) - @result{} ((0 nil) (1 1) (2 2) (3 3) (4 4)) -(loop for x below 5 and y = nil then x collect (list x y)) - @result{} ((0 nil) (1 0) (2 1) (3 2) (4 3)) -@end example - -@noindent -In the first loop, @code{y} is set based on the value of @code{x} -that was just set by the previous clause; in the second loop, -@code{x} and @code{y} are set simultaneously so @code{y} is set -based on the value of @code{x} left over from the previous time -through the loop. - -Another feature of the @code{loop} macro is @dfn{destructuring}, -similar in concept to the destructuring provided by @code{defmacro}. -The @var{var} part of any @code{for} clause can be given as a list -of variables instead of a single variable. The values produced -during loop execution must be lists; the values in the lists are -stored in the corresponding variables. - -@example -(loop for (x y) in '((2 3) (4 5) (6 7)) collect (+ x y)) - @result{} (5 9 13) -@end example - -In loop destructuring, if there are more values than variables -the trailing values are ignored, and if there are more variables -than values the trailing variables get the value @code{nil}. -If @code{nil} is used as a variable name, the corresponding -values are ignored. Destructuring may be nested, and dotted -lists of variables like @code{(x . y)} are allowed. - -@node Iteration Clauses, Accumulation Clauses, For Clauses, Loop Facility -@subsection Iteration Clauses - -@noindent -Aside from @code{for} clauses, there are several other loop clauses -that control the way the loop operates. They might be used by -themselves, or in conjunction with one or more @code{for} clauses. - -@table @code -@item repeat @var{integer} -This clause simply counts up to the specified number using an -internal temporary variable. The loops - -@example -(loop repeat n do ...) -(loop for temp to n do ...) -@end example - -@noindent -are identical except that the second one forces you to choose -a name for a variable you aren't actually going to use. - -@item while @var{condition} -This clause stops the loop when the specified condition (any Lisp -expression) becomes @code{nil}. For example, the following two -loops are equivalent, except for the implicit @code{nil} block -that surrounds the second one: - -@example -(while @var{cond} @var{forms}@dots{}) -(loop while @var{cond} do @var{forms}@dots{}) -@end example - -@item until @var{condition} -This clause stops the loop when the specified condition is true, -i.e., non-@code{nil}. - -@item always @var{condition} -This clause stops the loop when the specified condition is @code{nil}. -Unlike @code{while}, it stops the loop using @code{return nil} so that -the @code{finally} clauses are not executed. If all the conditions -were non-@code{nil}, the loop returns @code{t}: - -@example -(if (loop for size in size-list always (> size 10)) - (some-big-sizes) - (no-big-sizes)) -@end example - -@item never @var{condition} -This clause is like @code{always}, except that the loop returns -@code{t} if any conditions were false, or @code{nil} otherwise. - -@item thereis @var{condition} -This clause stops the loop when the specified form is non-@code{nil}; -in this case, it returns that non-@code{nil} value. If all the -values were @code{nil}, the loop returns @code{nil}. -@end table - -@node Accumulation Clauses, Other Clauses, Iteration Clauses, Loop Facility -@subsection Accumulation Clauses - -@noindent -These clauses cause the loop to accumulate information about the -specified Lisp @var{form}. The accumulated result is returned -from the loop unless overridden, say, by a @code{return} clause. - -@table @code -@item collect @var{form} -This clause collects the values of @var{form} into a list. Several -examples of @code{collect} appear elsewhere in this manual. - -The word @code{collecting} is a synonym for @code{collect}, and -likewise for the other accumulation clauses. - -@item append @var{form} -This clause collects lists of values into a result list using -@code{append}. - -@item nconc @var{form} -This clause collects lists of values into a result list by -destructively modifying the lists rather than copying them. - -@item concat @var{form} -This clause concatenates the values of the specified @var{form} -into a string. (It and the following clause are extensions to -standard Common Lisp.) - -@item vconcat @var{form} -This clause concatenates the values of the specified @var{form} -into a vector. - -@item count @var{form} -This clause counts the number of times the specified @var{form} -evaluates to a non-@code{nil} value. - -@item sum @var{form} -This clause accumulates the sum of the values of the specified -@var{form}, which must evaluate to a number. - -@item maximize @var{form} -This clause accumulates the maximum value of the specified @var{form}, -which must evaluate to a number. The return value is undefined if -@code{maximize} is executed zero times. - -@item minimize @var{form} -This clause accumulates the minimum value of the specified @var{form}. -@end table - -Accumulation clauses can be followed by @samp{into @var{var}} to -cause the data to be collected into variable @var{var} (which is -automatically @code{let}-bound during the loop) rather than an -unnamed temporary variable. Also, @code{into} accumulations do -not automatically imply a return value. The loop must use some -explicit mechanism, such as @code{finally return}, to return -the accumulated result. - -It is valid for several accumulation clauses of the same type to -accumulate into the same place. From Steele: - -@example -(loop for name in '(fred sue alice joe june) - for kids in '((bob ken) () () (kris sunshine) ()) - collect name - append kids) - @result{} (fred bob ken sue alice joe kris sunshine june) -@end example - -@node Other Clauses, , Accumulation Clauses, Loop Facility -@subsection Other Clauses - -@noindent -This section describes the remaining loop clauses. - -@table @code -@item with @var{var} = @var{value} -This clause binds a variable to a value around the loop, but -otherwise leaves the variable alone during the loop. The following -loops are basically equivalent: - -@example -(loop with x = 17 do ...) -(let ((x 17)) (loop do ...)) -(loop for x = 17 then x do ...) -@end example - -Naturally, the variable @var{var} might be used for some purpose -in the rest of the loop. For example: - -@example -(loop for x in my-list with res = nil do (push x res) - finally return res) -@end example - -This loop inserts the elements of @code{my-list} at the front of -a new list being accumulated in @code{res}, then returns the -list @code{res} at the end of the loop. The effect is similar -to that of a @code{collect} clause, but the list gets reversed -by virtue of the fact that elements are being pushed onto the -front of @code{res} rather than the end. - -If you omit the @code{=} term, the variable is initialized to -@code{nil}. (Thus the @samp{= nil} in the above example is -unnecessary.) - -Bindings made by @code{with} are sequential by default, as if -by @code{let*}. Just like @code{for} clauses, @code{with} clauses -can be linked with @code{and} to cause the bindings to be made by -@code{let} instead. - -@item if @var{condition} @var{clause} -This clause executes the following loop clause only if the specified -condition is true. The following @var{clause} should be an accumulation, -@code{do}, @code{return}, @code{if}, or @code{unless} clause. -Several clauses may be linked by separating them with @code{and}. -These clauses may be followed by @code{else} and a clause or clauses -to execute if the condition was false. The whole construct may -optionally be followed by the word @code{end} (which may be used to -disambiguate an @code{else} or @code{and} in a nested @code{if}). - -The actual non-@code{nil} value of the condition form is available -by the name @code{it} in the ``then'' part. For example: - -@example -(setq funny-numbers '(6 13 -1)) - @result{} (6 13 -1) -(loop for x below 10 - if (oddp x) - collect x into odds - and if (memq x funny-numbers) return (cdr it) end - else - collect x into evens - finally return (vector odds evens)) - @result{} [(1 3 5 7 9) (0 2 4 6 8)] -(setq funny-numbers '(6 7 13 -1)) - @result{} (6 7 13 -1) -(loop <@r{same thing again}>) - @result{} (13 -1) -@end example - -Note the use of @code{and} to put two clauses into the ``then'' -part, one of which is itself an @code{if} clause. Note also that -@code{end}, while normally optional, was necessary here to make -it clear that the @code{else} refers to the outermost @code{if} -clause. In the first case, the loop returns a vector of lists -of the odd and even values of @var{x}. In the second case, the -odd number 7 is one of the @code{funny-numbers} so the loop -returns early; the actual returned value is based on the result -of the @code{memq} call. - -@item when @var{condition} @var{clause} -This clause is just a synonym for @code{if}. - -@item unless @var{condition} @var{clause} -The @code{unless} clause is just like @code{if} except that the -sense of the condition is reversed. - -@item named @var{name} -This clause gives a name other than @code{nil} to the implicit -block surrounding the loop. The @var{name} is the symbol to be -used as the block name. - -@item initially [do] @var{forms}... -This keyword introduces one or more Lisp forms which will be -executed before the loop itself begins (but after any variables -requested by @code{for} or @code{with} have been bound to their -initial values). @code{initially} clauses can appear anywhere; -if there are several, they are executed in the order they appear -in the loop. The keyword @code{do} is optional. - -@item finally [do] @var{forms}... -This introduces Lisp forms which will be executed after the loop -finishes (say, on request of a @code{for} or @code{while}). -@code{initially} and @code{finally} clauses may appear anywhere -in the loop construct, but they are executed (in the specified -order) at the beginning or end, respectively, of the loop. - -@item finally return @var{form} -This says that @var{form} should be executed after the loop -is done to obtain a return value. (Without this, or some other -clause like @code{collect} or @code{return}, the loop will simply -return @code{nil}.) Variables bound by @code{for}, @code{with}, -or @code{into} will still contain their final values when @var{form} -is executed. - -@item do @var{forms}... -The word @code{do} may be followed by any number of Lisp expressions -which are executed as an implicit @code{progn} in the body of the -loop. Many of the examples in this section illustrate the use of -@code{do}. - -@item return @var{form} -This clause causes the loop to return immediately. The following -Lisp form is evaluated to give the return value of the @code{loop} -form. The @code{finally} clauses, if any, are not executed. -Of course, @code{return} is generally used inside an @code{if} or -@code{unless}, as its use in a top-level loop clause would mean -the loop would never get to ``loop'' more than once. - -The clause @samp{return @var{form}} is equivalent to -@samp{do (return @var{form})} (or @code{return-from} if the loop -was named). The @code{return} clause is implemented a bit more -efficiently, though. -@end table - -While there is no high-level way to add user extensions to @code{loop} -(comparable to @code{defsetf} for @code{setf}, say), this package -does offer two properties called @code{cl-loop-handler} and -@code{cl-loop-for-handler} which are functions to be called when -a given symbol is encountered as a top-level loop clause or -@code{for} clause, respectively. Consult the source code in -file @file{cl-macs.el} for details. - -This package's @code{loop} macro is compatible with that of Common -Lisp, except that a few features are not implemented: @code{loop-finish} -and data-type specifiers. Naturally, the @code{for} clauses which -iterate over keymaps, overlays, intervals, frames, windows, and -buffers are Emacs-specific extensions. - -@node Multiple Values, , Loop Facility, Control Structure -@section Multiple Values - -@noindent -Common Lisp functions can return zero or more results. Emacs Lisp -functions, by contrast, always return exactly one result. This -package makes no attempt to emulate Common Lisp multiple return -values; Emacs versions of Common Lisp functions that return more -than one value either return just the first value (as in -@code{compiler-macroexpand}) or return a list of values (as in -@code{get-setf-method}). This package @emph{does} define placeholders -for the Common Lisp functions that work with multiple values, but -in Emacs Lisp these functions simply operate on lists instead. -The @code{values} form, for example, is a synonym for @code{list} -in Emacs. - -@defspec multiple-value-bind (var@dots{}) values-form forms@dots{} -This form evaluates @var{values-form}, which must return a list of -values. It then binds the @var{var}s to these respective values, -as if by @code{let}, and then executes the body @var{forms}. -If there are more @var{var}s than values, the extra @var{var}s -are bound to @code{nil}. If there are fewer @var{var}s than -values, the excess values are ignored. -@end defspec - -@defspec multiple-value-setq (var@dots{}) form -This form evaluates @var{form}, which must return a list of values. -It then sets the @var{var}s to these respective values, as if by -@code{setq}. Extra @var{var}s or values are treated the same as -in @code{multiple-value-bind}. -@end defspec - -The older Quiroz package attempted a more faithful (but still -imperfect) emulation of Common Lisp multiple values. The old -method ``usually'' simulated true multiple values quite well, -but under certain circumstances would leave spurious return -values in memory where a later, unrelated @code{multiple-value-bind} -form would see them. - -Since a perfect emulation is not feasible in Emacs Lisp, this -package opts to keep it as simple and predictable as possible. - -@node Macros, Declarations, Control Structure, Top -@chapter Macros - -@noindent -This package implements the various Common Lisp features of -@code{defmacro}, such as destructuring, @code{&environment}, -and @code{&body}. Top-level @code{&whole} is not implemented -for @code{defmacro} due to technical difficulties. -@xref{Argument Lists}. - -Destructuring is made available to the user by way of the -following macro: - -@defspec destructuring-bind arglist expr forms@dots{} -This macro expands to code which executes @var{forms}, with -the variables in @var{arglist} bound to the list of values -returned by @var{expr}. The @var{arglist} can include all -the features allowed for @code{defmacro} argument lists, -including destructuring. (The @code{&environment} keyword -is not allowed.) The macro expansion will signal an error -if @var{expr} returns a list of the wrong number of arguments -or with incorrect keyword arguments. -@end defspec - -This package also includes the Common Lisp @code{define-compiler-macro} -facility, which allows you to define compile-time expansions and -optimizations for your functions. - -@defspec define-compiler-macro name arglist forms@dots{} -This form is similar to @code{defmacro}, except that it only expands -calls to @var{name} at compile-time; calls processed by the Lisp -interpreter are not expanded, nor are they expanded by the -@code{macroexpand} function. - -The argument list may begin with a @code{&whole} keyword and a -variable. This variable is bound to the macro-call form itself, -i.e., to a list of the form @samp{(@var{name} @var{args}@dots{})}. -If the macro expander returns this form unchanged, then the -compiler treats it as a normal function call. This allows -compiler macros to work as optimizers for special cases of a -function, leaving complicated cases alone. - -For example, here is a simplified version of a definition that -appears as a standard part of this package: - -@example -(define-compiler-macro member* (&whole form a list &rest keys) - (if (and (null keys) - (eq (car-safe a) 'quote) - (not (floatp-safe (cadr a)))) - (list 'memq a list) - form)) -@end example - -@noindent -This definition causes @code{(member* @var{a} @var{list})} to change -to a call to the faster @code{memq} in the common case where @var{a} -is a non-floating-point constant; if @var{a} is anything else, or -if there are any keyword arguments in the call, then the original -@code{member*} call is left intact. (The actual compiler macro -for @code{member*} optimizes a number of other cases, including -common @code{:test} predicates.) -@end defspec - -@defun compiler-macroexpand form -This function is analogous to @code{macroexpand}, except that it -expands compiler macros rather than regular macros. It returns -@var{form} unchanged if it is not a call to a function for which -a compiler macro has been defined, or if that compiler macro -decided to punt by returning its @code{&whole} argument. Like -@code{macroexpand}, it expands repeatedly until it reaches a form -for which no further expansion is possible. -@end defun - -@xref{Macro Bindings}, for descriptions of the @code{macrolet} -and @code{symbol-macrolet} forms for making ``local'' macro -definitions. - -@node Declarations, Symbols, Macros, Top -@chapter Declarations - -@noindent -Common Lisp includes a complex and powerful ``declaration'' -mechanism that allows you to give the compiler special hints -about the types of data that will be stored in particular variables, -and about the ways those variables and functions will be used. This -package defines versions of all the Common Lisp declaration forms: -@code{declare}, @code{locally}, @code{proclaim}, @code{declaim}, -and @code{the}. - -Most of the Common Lisp declarations are not currently useful in -Emacs Lisp, as the byte-code system provides little opportunity -to benefit from type information, and @code{special} declarations -are redundant in a fully dynamically-scoped Lisp. A few -declarations are meaningful when the optimizing byte -compiler is being used, however. Under the earlier non-optimizing -compiler, these declarations will effectively be ignored. - -@defun proclaim decl-spec -This function records a ``global'' declaration specified by -@var{decl-spec}. Since @code{proclaim} is a function, @var{decl-spec} -is evaluated and thus should normally be quoted. -@end defun - -@defspec declaim decl-specs@dots{} -This macro is like @code{proclaim}, except that it takes any number -of @var{decl-spec} arguments, and the arguments are unevaluated and -unquoted. The @code{declaim} macro also puts an @code{(eval-when -(compile load eval) ...)} around the declarations so that they will -be registered at compile-time as well as at run-time. (This is vital, -since normally the declarations are meant to influence the way the -compiler treats the rest of the file that contains the @code{declaim} -form.) -@end defspec - -@defspec declare decl-specs@dots{} -This macro is used to make declarations within functions and other -code. Common Lisp allows declarations in various locations, generally -at the beginning of any of the many ``implicit @code{progn}s'' -throughout Lisp syntax, such as function bodies, @code{let} bodies, -etc. Currently the only declaration understood by @code{declare} -is @code{special}. -@end defspec - -@defspec locally declarations@dots{} forms@dots{} -In this package, @code{locally} is no different from @code{progn}. -@end defspec - -@defspec the type form -Type information provided by @code{the} is ignored in this package; -in other words, @code{(the @var{type} @var{form})} is equivalent -to @var{form}. Future versions of the optimizing byte-compiler may -make use of this information. - -For example, @code{mapcar} can map over both lists and arrays. It is -hard for the compiler to expand @code{mapcar} into an in-line loop -unless it knows whether the sequence will be a list or an array ahead -of time. With @code{(mapcar 'car (the vector foo))}, a future -compiler would have enough information to expand the loop in-line. -For now, Emacs Lisp will treat the above code as exactly equivalent -to @code{(mapcar 'car foo)}. -@end defspec - -Each @var{decl-spec} in a @code{proclaim}, @code{declaim}, or -@code{declare} should be a list beginning with a symbol that says -what kind of declaration it is. This package currently understands -@code{special}, @code{inline}, @code{notinline}, @code{optimize}, -and @code{warn} declarations. (The @code{warn} declaration is an -extension of standard Common Lisp.) Other Common Lisp declarations, -such as @code{type} and @code{ftype}, are silently ignored. - -@table @code -@item special -Since all variables in Emacs Lisp are ``special'' (in the Common -Lisp sense), @code{special} declarations are only advisory. They -simply tell the optimizing byte compiler that the specified -variables are intentionally being referred to without being -bound in the body of the function. The compiler normally emits -warnings for such references, since they could be typographical -errors for references to local variables. - -The declaration @code{(declare (special @var{var1} @var{var2}))} is -equivalent to @code{(defvar @var{var1}) (defvar @var{var2})} in the -optimizing compiler, or to nothing at all in older compilers (which -do not warn for non-local references). - -In top-level contexts, it is generally better to write -@code{(defvar @var{var})} than @code{(declaim (special @var{var}))}, -since @code{defvar} makes your intentions clearer. But the older -byte compilers can not handle @code{defvar}s appearing inside of -functions, while @code{(declare (special @var{var}))} takes care -to work correctly with all compilers. - -@item inline -The @code{inline} @var{decl-spec} lists one or more functions -whose bodies should be expanded ``in-line'' into calling functions -whenever the compiler is able to arrange for it. For example, -the Common Lisp function @code{cadr} is declared @code{inline} -by this package so that the form @code{(cadr @var{x})} will -expand directly into @code{(car (cdr @var{x}))} when it is called -in user functions, for a savings of one (relatively expensive) -function call. - -The following declarations are all equivalent. Note that the -@code{defsubst} form is a convenient way to define a function -and declare it inline all at once. - -@example -(declaim (inline foo bar)) -(eval-when (compile load eval) (proclaim '(inline foo bar))) -(defsubst foo (...) ...) ; instead of defun -@end example - -@strong{Please note:} this declaration remains in effect after the -containing source file is done. It is correct to use it to -request that a function you have defined should be inlined, -but it is impolite to use it to request inlining of an external -function. - -In Common Lisp, it is possible to use @code{(declare (inline @dots{}))} -before a particular call to a function to cause just that call to -be inlined; the current byte compilers provide no way to implement -this, so @code{(declare (inline @dots{}))} is currently ignored by -this package. - -@item notinline -The @code{notinline} declaration lists functions which should -not be inlined after all; it cancels a previous @code{inline} -declaration. - -@item optimize -This declaration controls how much optimization is performed by -the compiler. Naturally, it is ignored by the earlier non-optimizing -compilers. - -The word @code{optimize} is followed by any number of lists like -@code{(speed 3)} or @code{(safety 2)}. Common Lisp defines several -optimization ``qualities''; this package ignores all but @code{speed} -and @code{safety}. The value of a quality should be an integer from -0 to 3, with 0 meaning ``unimportant'' and 3 meaning ``very important.'' -The default level for both qualities is 1. - -In this package, with the optimizing compiler, the -@code{speed} quality is tied to the @code{byte-compile-optimize} -flag, which is set to @code{nil} for @code{(speed 0)} and to -@code{t} for higher settings; and the @code{safety} quality is -tied to the @code{byte-compile-delete-errors} flag, which is -set to @code{t} for @code{(safety 3)} and to @code{nil} for all -lower settings. (The latter flag controls whether the compiler -is allowed to optimize out code whose only side-effect could -be to signal an error, e.g., rewriting @code{(progn foo bar)} to -@code{bar} when it is not known whether @code{foo} will be bound -at run-time.) - -Note that even compiling with @code{(safety 0)}, the Emacs -byte-code system provides sufficient checking to prevent real -harm from being done. For example, barring serious bugs in -Emacs itself, Emacs will not crash with a segmentation fault -just because of an error in a fully-optimized Lisp program. - -The @code{optimize} declaration is normally used in a top-level -@code{proclaim} or @code{declaim} in a file; Common Lisp allows -it to be used with @code{declare} to set the level of optimization -locally for a given form, but this will not work correctly with the -current version of the optimizing compiler. (The @code{declare} -will set the new optimization level, but that level will not -automatically be unset after the enclosing form is done.) - -@item warn -This declaration controls what sorts of warnings are generated -by the byte compiler. Again, only the optimizing compiler -generates warnings. The word @code{warn} is followed by any -number of ``warning qualities,'' similar in form to optimization -qualities. The currently supported warning types are -@code{redefine}, @code{callargs}, @code{unresolved}, and -@code{free-vars}; in the current system, a value of 0 will -disable these warnings and any higher value will enable them. -See the documentation for the optimizing byte compiler for details. -@end table - -@node Symbols, Numbers, Declarations, Top -@chapter Symbols - -@noindent -This package defines several symbol-related features that were -missing from Emacs Lisp. - -@menu -* Property Lists:: `get*', `remprop', `getf', `remf' -* Creating Symbols:: `gensym', `gentemp' -@end menu - -@node Property Lists, Creating Symbols, Symbols, Symbols -@section Property Lists - -@noindent -These functions augment the standard Emacs Lisp functions @code{get} -and @code{put} for operating on properties attached to symbols. -There are also functions for working with property lists as -first-class data structures not attached to particular symbols. - -@defun get* symbol property &optional default -This function is like @code{get}, except that if the property is -not found, the @var{default} argument provides the return value. -(The Emacs Lisp @code{get} function always uses @code{nil} as -the default; this package's @code{get*} is equivalent to Common -Lisp's @code{get}.) - -The @code{get*} function is @code{setf}-able; when used in this -fashion, the @var{default} argument is allowed but ignored. -@end defun - -@defun remprop symbol property -This function removes the entry for @var{property} from the property -list of @var{symbol}. It returns a true value if the property was -indeed found and removed, or @code{nil} if there was no such property. -(This function was probably omitted from Emacs originally because, -since @code{get} did not allow a @var{default}, it was very difficult -to distinguish between a missing property and a property whose value -was @code{nil}; thus, setting a property to @code{nil} was close -enough to @code{remprop} for most purposes.) -@end defun - -@defun getf place property &optional default -This function scans the list @var{place} as if it were a property -list, i.e., a list of alternating property names and values. If -an even-numbered element of @var{place} is found which is @code{eq} -to @var{property}, the following odd-numbered element is returned. -Otherwise, @var{default} is returned (or @code{nil} if no default -is given). - -In particular, - -@example -(get sym prop) @equiv{} (getf (symbol-plist sym) prop) -@end example - -It is valid to use @code{getf} as a @code{setf} place, in which case -its @var{place} argument must itself be a valid @code{setf} place. -The @var{default} argument, if any, is ignored in this context. -The effect is to change (via @code{setcar}) the value cell in the -list that corresponds to @var{property}, or to cons a new property-value -pair onto the list if the property is not yet present. - -@example -(put sym prop val) @equiv{} (setf (getf (symbol-plist sym) prop) val) -@end example - -The @code{get} and @code{get*} functions are also @code{setf}-able. -The fact that @code{default} is ignored can sometimes be useful: - -@example -(incf (get* 'foo 'usage-count 0)) -@end example - -Here, symbol @code{foo}'s @code{usage-count} property is incremented -if it exists, or set to 1 (an incremented 0) otherwise. - -When not used as a @code{setf} form, @code{getf} is just a regular -function and its @var{place} argument can actually be any Lisp -expression. -@end defun - -@defspec remf place property -This macro removes the property-value pair for @var{property} from -the property list stored at @var{place}, which is any @code{setf}-able -place expression. It returns true if the property was found. Note -that if @var{property} happens to be first on the list, this will -effectively do a @code{(setf @var{place} (cddr @var{place}))}, -whereas if it occurs later, this simply uses @code{setcdr} to splice -out the property and value cells. -@end defspec - -@iftex -@secno=2 -@end iftex - -@node Creating Symbols, , Property Lists, Symbols -@section Creating Symbols - -@noindent -These functions create unique symbols, typically for use as -temporary variables. - -@defun gensym &optional x -This function creates a new, uninterned symbol (using @code{make-symbol}) -with a unique name. (The name of an uninterned symbol is relevant -only if the symbol is printed.) By default, the name is generated -from an increasing sequence of numbers, @samp{G1000}, @samp{G1001}, -@samp{G1002}, etc. If the optional argument @var{x} is a string, that -string is used as a prefix instead of @samp{G}. Uninterned symbols -are used in macro expansions for temporary variables, to ensure that -their names will not conflict with ``real'' variables in the user's -code. -@end defun - -@defvar *gensym-counter* -This variable holds the counter used to generate @code{gensym} names. -It is incremented after each use by @code{gensym}. In Common Lisp -this is initialized with 0, but this package initializes it with a -random (time-dependent) value to avoid trouble when two files that -each used @code{gensym} in their compilation are loaded together. -(Uninterned symbols become interned when the compiler writes them -out to a file and the Emacs loader loads them, so their names have to -be treated a bit more carefully than in Common Lisp where uninterned -symbols remain uninterned after loading.) -@end defvar - -@defun gentemp &optional x -This function is like @code{gensym}, except that it produces a new -@emph{interned} symbol. If the symbol that is generated already -exists, the function keeps incrementing the counter and trying -again until a new symbol is generated. -@end defun - -The Quiroz @file{cl.el} package also defined a @code{defkeyword} -form for creating self-quoting keyword symbols. This package -automatically creates all keywords that are called for by -@code{&key} argument specifiers, and discourages the use of -keywords as data unrelated to keyword arguments, so the -@code{defkeyword} form has been discontinued. - -@iftex -@chapno=11 -@end iftex - -@node Numbers, Sequences, Symbols, Top -@chapter Numbers - -@noindent -This section defines a few simple Common Lisp operations on numbers -which were left out of Emacs Lisp. - -@menu -* Predicates on Numbers:: `plusp', `oddp', `floatp-safe', etc. -* Numerical Functions:: `abs', `floor*', etc. -* Random Numbers:: `random*', `make-random-state' -* Implementation Parameters:: `most-positive-float' -@end menu - -@iftex -@secno=1 -@end iftex - -@node Predicates on Numbers, Numerical Functions, Numbers, Numbers -@section Predicates on Numbers - -@noindent -These functions return @code{t} if the specified condition is -true of the numerical argument, or @code{nil} otherwise. - -@defun plusp number -This predicate tests whether @var{number} is positive. It is an -error if the argument is not a number. -@end defun - -@defun minusp number -This predicate tests whether @var{number} is negative. It is an -error if the argument is not a number. -@end defun - -@defun oddp integer -This predicate tests whether @var{integer} is odd. It is an -error if the argument is not an integer. -@end defun - -@defun evenp integer -This predicate tests whether @var{integer} is even. It is an -error if the argument is not an integer. -@end defun - -@defun floatp-safe object -This predicate tests whether @var{object} is a floating-point -number. On systems that support floating-point, this is equivalent -to @code{floatp}. On other systems, this always returns @code{nil}. -@end defun - -@iftex -@secno=3 -@end iftex - -@node Numerical Functions, Random Numbers, Predicates on Numbers, Numbers -@section Numerical Functions - -@noindent -These functions perform various arithmetic operations on numbers. - -@defun gcd &rest integers -This function returns the Greatest Common Divisor of the arguments. -For one argument, it returns the absolute value of that argument. -For zero arguments, it returns zero. -@end defun - -@defun lcm &rest integers -This function returns the Least Common Multiple of the arguments. -For one argument, it returns the absolute value of that argument. -For zero arguments, it returns one. -@end defun - -@defun isqrt integer -This function computes the ``integer square root'' of its integer -argument, i.e., the greatest integer less than or equal to the true -square root of the argument. -@end defun - -@defun floor* number &optional divisor -This function implements the Common Lisp @code{floor} function. -It is called @code{floor*} to avoid name conflicts with the -simpler @code{floor} function built-in to Emacs. - -With one argument, @code{floor*} returns a list of two numbers: -The argument rounded down (toward minus infinity) to an integer, -and the ``remainder'' which would have to be added back to the -first return value to yield the argument again. If the argument -is an integer @var{x}, the result is always the list @code{(@var{x} 0)}. -If the argument is a floating-point number, the first -result is a Lisp integer and the second is a Lisp float between -0 (inclusive) and 1 (exclusive). - -With two arguments, @code{floor*} divides @var{number} by -@var{divisor}, and returns the floor of the quotient and the -corresponding remainder as a list of two numbers. If -@code{(floor* @var{x} @var{y})} returns @code{(@var{q} @var{r})}, -then @code{@var{q}*@var{y} + @var{r} = @var{x}}, with @var{r} -between 0 (inclusive) and @var{r} (exclusive). Also, note -that @code{(floor* @var{x})} is exactly equivalent to -@code{(floor* @var{x} 1)}. - -This function is entirely compatible with Common Lisp's @code{floor} -function, except that it returns the two results in a list since -Emacs Lisp does not support multiple-valued functions. -@end defun - -@defun ceiling* number &optional divisor -This function implements the Common Lisp @code{ceiling} function, -which is analogous to @code{floor} except that it rounds the -argument or quotient of the arguments up toward plus infinity. -The remainder will be between 0 and minus @var{r}. -@end defun - -@defun truncate* number &optional divisor -This function implements the Common Lisp @code{truncate} function, -which is analogous to @code{floor} except that it rounds the -argument or quotient of the arguments toward zero. Thus it is -equivalent to @code{floor*} if the argument or quotient is -positive, or to @code{ceiling*} otherwise. The remainder has -the same sign as @var{number}. -@end defun - -@defun round* number &optional divisor -This function implements the Common Lisp @code{round} function, -which is analogous to @code{floor} except that it rounds the -argument or quotient of the arguments to the nearest integer. -In the case of a tie (the argument or quotient is exactly -halfway between two integers), it rounds to the even integer. -@end defun - -@defun mod* number divisor -This function returns the same value as the second return value -of @code{floor}. -@end defun - -@defun rem* number divisor -This function returns the same value as the second return value -of @code{truncate}. -@end defun - -These definitions are compatible with those in the Quiroz -@file{cl.el} package, except that this package appends @samp{*} -to certain function names to avoid conflicts with existing -Emacs functions, and that the mechanism for returning -multiple values is different. - -@iftex -@secno=8 -@end iftex - -@node Random Numbers, Implementation Parameters, Numerical Functions, Numbers -@section Random Numbers - -@noindent -This package also provides an implementation of the Common Lisp -random number generator. It uses its own additive-congruential -algorithm, which is much more likely to give statistically clean -random numbers than the simple generators supplied by many -operating systems. - -@defun random* number &optional state -This function returns a random nonnegative number less than -@var{number}, and of the same type (either integer or floating-point). -The @var{state} argument should be a @code{random-state} object -which holds the state of the random number generator. The -function modifies this state object as a side effect. If -@var{state} is omitted, it defaults to the variable -@code{*random-state*}, which contains a pre-initialized -@code{random-state} object. -@end defun - -@defvar *random-state* -This variable contains the system ``default'' @code{random-state} -object, used for calls to @code{random*} that do not specify an -alternative state object. Since any number of programs in the -Emacs process may be accessing @code{*random-state*} in interleaved -fashion, the sequence generated from this variable will be -irreproducible for all intents and purposes. -@end defvar - -@defun make-random-state &optional state -This function creates or copies a @code{random-state} object. -If @var{state} is omitted or @code{nil}, it returns a new copy of -@code{*random-state*}. This is a copy in the sense that future -sequences of calls to @code{(random* @var{n})} and -@code{(random* @var{n} @var{s})} (where @var{s} is the new -random-state object) will return identical sequences of random -numbers. - -If @var{state} is a @code{random-state} object, this function -returns a copy of that object. If @var{state} is @code{t}, this -function returns a new @code{random-state} object seeded from the -date and time. As an extension to Common Lisp, @var{state} may also -be an integer in which case the new object is seeded from that -integer; each different integer seed will result in a completely -different sequence of random numbers. - -It is valid to print a @code{random-state} object to a buffer or -file and later read it back with @code{read}. If a program wishes -to use a sequence of pseudo-random numbers which can be reproduced -later for debugging, it can call @code{(make-random-state t)} to -get a new sequence, then print this sequence to a file. When the -program is later rerun, it can read the original run's random-state -from the file. -@end defun - -@defun random-state-p object -This predicate returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a -@code{random-state} object, or @code{nil} otherwise. -@end defun - -@node Implementation Parameters, , Random Numbers, Numbers -@section Implementation Parameters - -@noindent -This package defines several useful constants having to with numbers. - -The following parameters have to do with floating-point numbers. -This package determines their values by exercising the computer's -floating-point arithmetic in various ways. Because this operation -might be slow, the code for initializing them is kept in a separate -function that must be called before the parameters can be used. - -@defun cl-float-limits -This function makes sure that the Common Lisp floating-point parameters -like @code{most-positive-float} have been initialized. Until it is -called, these parameters will be @code{nil}. If this version of Emacs -does not support floats, the parameters will remain @code{nil}. If the -parameters have already been initialized, the function returns -immediately. - -The algorithm makes assumptions that will be valid for most modern -machines, but will fail if the machine's arithmetic is extremely -unusual, e.g., decimal. -@end defun - -Since true Common Lisp supports up to four different floating-point -precisions, it has families of constants like -@code{most-positive-single-float}, @code{most-positive-double-float}, -@code{most-positive-long-float}, and so on. Emacs has only one -floating-point precision, so this package omits the precision word -from the constants' names. - -@defvar most-positive-float -This constant equals the largest value a Lisp float can hold. -For those systems whose arithmetic supports infinities, this is -the largest @emph{finite} value. For IEEE machines, the value -is approximately @code{1.79e+308}. -@end defvar - -@defvar most-negative-float -This constant equals the most-negative value a Lisp float can hold. -(It is assumed to be equal to @code{(- most-positive-float)}.) -@end defvar - -@defvar least-positive-float -This constant equals the smallest Lisp float value greater than zero. -For IEEE machines, it is about @code{4.94e-324} if denormals are -supported or @code{2.22e-308} if not. -@end defvar - -@defvar least-positive-normalized-float -This constant equals the smallest @emph{normalized} Lisp float greater -than zero, i.e., the smallest value for which IEEE denormalization -will not result in a loss of precision. For IEEE machines, this -value is about @code{2.22e-308}. For machines that do not support -the concept of denormalization and gradual underflow, this constant -will always equal @code{least-positive-float}. -@end defvar - -@defvar least-negative-float -This constant is the negative counterpart of @code{least-positive-float}. -@end defvar - -@defvar least-negative-normalized-float -This constant is the negative counterpart of -@code{least-positive-normalized-float}. -@end defvar - -@defvar float-epsilon -This constant is the smallest positive Lisp float that can be added -to 1.0 to produce a distinct value. Adding a smaller number to 1.0 -will yield 1.0 again due to roundoff. For IEEE machines, epsilon -is about @code{2.22e-16}. -@end defvar - -@defvar float-negative-epsilon -This is the smallest positive value that can be subtracted from -1.0 to produce a distinct value. For IEEE machines, it is about -@code{1.11e-16}. -@end defvar - -@iftex -@chapno=13 -@end iftex - -@node Sequences, Lists, Numbers, Top -@chapter Sequences - -@noindent -Common Lisp defines a number of functions that operate on -@dfn{sequences}, which are either lists, strings, or vectors. -Emacs Lisp includes a few of these, notably @code{elt} and -@code{length}; this package defines most of the rest. - -@menu -* Sequence Basics:: Arguments shared by all sequence functions -* Mapping over Sequences:: `mapcar*', `mapcan', `map', `every', etc. -* Sequence Functions:: `subseq', `remove*', `substitute', etc. -* Searching Sequences:: `find', `position', `count', `search', etc. -* Sorting Sequences:: `sort*', `stable-sort', `merge' -@end menu - -@node Sequence Basics, Mapping over Sequences, Sequences, Sequences -@section Sequence Basics - -@noindent -Many of the sequence functions take keyword arguments; @pxref{Argument -Lists}. All keyword arguments are optional and, if specified, -may appear in any order. - -The @code{:key} argument should be passed either @code{nil}, or a -function of one argument. This key function is used as a filter -through which the elements of the sequence are seen; for example, -@code{(find x y :key 'car)} is similar to @code{(assoc* x y)}: -It searches for an element of the list whose @code{car} equals -@code{x}, rather than for an element which equals @code{x} itself. -If @code{:key} is omitted or @code{nil}, the filter is effectively -the identity function. - -The @code{:test} and @code{:test-not} arguments should be either -@code{nil}, or functions of two arguments. The test function is -used to compare two sequence elements, or to compare a search value -with sequence elements. (The two values are passed to the test -function in the same order as the original sequence function -arguments from which they are derived, or, if they both come from -the same sequence, in the same order as they appear in that sequence.) -The @code{:test} argument specifies a function which must return -true (non-@code{nil}) to indicate a match; instead, you may use -@code{:test-not} to give a function which returns @emph{false} to -indicate a match. The default test function is @code{:test 'eql}. - -Many functions which take @var{item} and @code{:test} or @code{:test-not} -arguments also come in @code{-if} and @code{-if-not} varieties, -where a @var{predicate} function is passed instead of @var{item}, -and sequence elements match if the predicate returns true on them -(or false in the case of @code{-if-not}). For example: - -@example -(remove* 0 seq :test '=) @equiv{} (remove-if 'zerop seq) -@end example - -@noindent -to remove all zeros from sequence @code{seq}. - -Some operations can work on a subsequence of the argument sequence; -these function take @code{:start} and @code{:end} arguments which -default to zero and the length of the sequence, respectively. -Only elements between @var{start} (inclusive) and @var{end} -(exclusive) are affected by the operation. The @var{end} argument -may be passed @code{nil} to signify the length of the sequence; -otherwise, both @var{start} and @var{end} must be integers, with -@code{0 <= @var{start} <= @var{end} <= (length @var{seq})}. -If the function takes two sequence arguments, the limits are -defined by keywords @code{:start1} and @code{:end1} for the first, -and @code{:start2} and @code{:end2} for the second. - -A few functions accept a @code{:from-end} argument, which, if -non-@code{nil}, causes the operation to go from right-to-left -through the sequence instead of left-to-right, and a @code{:count} -argument, which specifies an integer maximum number of elements -to be removed or otherwise processed. - -The sequence functions make no guarantees about the order in -which the @code{:test}, @code{:test-not}, and @code{:key} functions -are called on various elements. Therefore, it is a bad idea to depend -on side effects of these functions. For example, @code{:from-end} -may cause the sequence to be scanned actually in reverse, or it may -be scanned forwards but computing a result ``as if'' it were scanned -backwards. (Some functions, like @code{mapcar*} and @code{every}, -@emph{do} specify exactly the order in which the function is called -so side effects are perfectly acceptable in those cases.) - -Strings may contain ``text properties'' as well -as character data. Except as noted, it is undefined whether or -not text properties are preserved by sequence functions. For -example, @code{(remove* ?A @var{str})} may or may not preserve -the properties of the characters copied from @var{str} into the -result. - -@node Mapping over Sequences, Sequence Functions, Sequence Basics, Sequences -@section Mapping over Sequences - -@noindent -These functions ``map'' the function you specify over the elements -of lists or arrays. They are all variations on the theme of the -built-in function @code{mapcar}. - -@defun mapcar* function seq &rest more-seqs -This function calls @var{function} on successive parallel sets of -elements from its argument sequences. Given a single @var{seq} -argument it is equivalent to @code{mapcar}; given @var{n} sequences, -it calls the function with the first elements of each of the sequences -as the @var{n} arguments to yield the first element of the result -list, then with the second elements, and so on. The mapping stops as -soon as the shortest sequence runs out. The argument sequences may -be any mixture of lists, strings, and vectors; the return sequence -is always a list. - -Common Lisp's @code{mapcar} accepts multiple arguments but works -only on lists; Emacs Lisp's @code{mapcar} accepts a single sequence -argument. This package's @code{mapcar*} works as a compatible -superset of both. -@end defun - -@defun map result-type function seq &rest more-seqs -This function maps @var{function} over the argument sequences, -just like @code{mapcar*}, but it returns a sequence of type -@var{result-type} rather than a list. @var{result-type} must -be one of the following symbols: @code{vector}, @code{string}, -@code{list} (in which case the effect is the same as for -@code{mapcar*}), or @code{nil} (in which case the results are -thrown away and @code{map} returns @code{nil}). -@end defun - -@defun maplist function list &rest more-lists -This function calls @var{function} on each of its argument lists, -then on the @code{cdr}s of those lists, and so on, until the -shortest list runs out. The results are returned in the form -of a list. Thus, @code{maplist} is like @code{mapcar*} except -that it passes in the list pointers themselves rather than the -@code{car}s of the advancing pointers. -@end defun - -@defun mapc function seq &rest more-seqs -This function is like @code{mapcar*}, except that the values returned -by @var{function} are ignored and thrown away rather than being -collected into a list. The return value of @code{mapc} is @var{seq}, -the first sequence. This function is more general than the Emacs -primitive @code{mapc}. -@end defun - -@defun mapl function list &rest more-lists -This function is like @code{maplist}, except that it throws away -the values returned by @var{function}. -@end defun - -@defun mapcan function seq &rest more-seqs -This function is like @code{mapcar*}, except that it concatenates -the return values (which must be lists) using @code{nconc}, -rather than simply collecting them into a list. -@end defun - -@defun mapcon function list &rest more-lists -This function is like @code{maplist}, except that it concatenates -the return values using @code{nconc}. -@end defun - -@defun some predicate seq &rest more-seqs -This function calls @var{predicate} on each element of @var{seq} -in turn; if @var{predicate} returns a non-@code{nil} value, -@code{some} returns that value, otherwise it returns @code{nil}. -Given several sequence arguments, it steps through the sequences -in parallel until the shortest one runs out, just as in -@code{mapcar*}. You can rely on the left-to-right order in which -the elements are visited, and on the fact that mapping stops -immediately as soon as @var{predicate} returns non-@code{nil}. -@end defun - -@defun every predicate seq &rest more-seqs -This function calls @var{predicate} on each element of the sequence(s) -in turn; it returns @code{nil} as soon as @var{predicate} returns -@code{nil} for any element, or @code{t} if the predicate was true -for all elements. -@end defun - -@defun notany predicate seq &rest more-seqs -This function calls @var{predicate} on each element of the sequence(s) -in turn; it returns @code{nil} as soon as @var{predicate} returns -a non-@code{nil} value for any element, or @code{t} if the predicate -was @code{nil} for all elements. -@end defun - -@defun notevery predicate seq &rest more-seqs -This function calls @var{predicate} on each element of the sequence(s) -in turn; it returns a non-@code{nil} value as soon as @var{predicate} -returns @code{nil} for any element, or @code{t} if the predicate was -true for all elements. -@end defun - -@defun reduce function seq @t{&key :from-end :start :end :initial-value :key} -This function combines the elements of @var{seq} using an associative -binary operation. Suppose @var{function} is @code{*} and @var{seq} is -the list @code{(2 3 4 5)}. The first two elements of the list are -combined with @code{(* 2 3) = 6}; this is combined with the next -element, @code{(* 6 4) = 24}, and that is combined with the final -element: @code{(* 24 5) = 120}. Note that the @code{*} function happens -to be self-reducing, so that @code{(* 2 3 4 5)} has the same effect as -an explicit call to @code{reduce}. - -If @code{:from-end} is true, the reduction is right-associative instead -of left-associative: - -@example -(reduce '- '(1 2 3 4)) - @equiv{} (- (- (- 1 2) 3) 4) @result{} -8 -(reduce '- '(1 2 3 4) :from-end t) - @equiv{} (- 1 (- 2 (- 3 4))) @result{} -2 -@end example - -If @code{:key} is specified, it is a function of one argument which -is called on each of the sequence elements in turn. - -If @code{:initial-value} is specified, it is effectively added to the -front (or rear in the case of @code{:from-end}) of the sequence. -The @code{:key} function is @emph{not} applied to the initial value. - -If the sequence, including the initial value, has exactly one element -then that element is returned without ever calling @var{function}. -If the sequence is empty (and there is no initial value), then -@var{function} is called with no arguments to obtain the return value. -@end defun - -All of these mapping operations can be expressed conveniently in -terms of the @code{loop} macro. In compiled code, @code{loop} will -be faster since it generates the loop as in-line code with no -function calls. - -@node Sequence Functions, Searching Sequences, Mapping over Sequences, Sequences -@section Sequence Functions - -@noindent -This section describes a number of Common Lisp functions for -operating on sequences. - -@defun subseq sequence start &optional end -This function returns a given subsequence of the argument -@var{sequence}, which may be a list, string, or vector. -The indices @var{start} and @var{end} must be in range, and -@var{start} must be no greater than @var{end}. If @var{end} -is omitted, it defaults to the length of the sequence. The -return value is always a copy; it does not share structure -with @var{sequence}. - -As an extension to Common Lisp, @var{start} and/or @var{end} -may be negative, in which case they represent a distance back -from the end of the sequence. This is for compatibility with -Emacs' @code{substring} function. Note that @code{subseq} is -the @emph{only} sequence function that allows negative -@var{start} and @var{end}. - -You can use @code{setf} on a @code{subseq} form to replace a -specified range of elements with elements from another sequence. -The replacement is done as if by @code{replace}, described below. -@end defun - -@defun concatenate result-type &rest seqs -This function concatenates the argument sequences together to -form a result sequence of type @var{result-type}, one of the -symbols @code{vector}, @code{string}, or @code{list}. The -arguments are always copied, even in cases such as -@code{(concatenate 'list '(1 2 3))} where the result is -identical to an argument. -@end defun - -@defun fill seq item @t{&key :start :end} -This function fills the elements of the sequence (or the specified -part of the sequence) with the value @var{item}. -@end defun - -@defun replace seq1 seq2 @t{&key :start1 :end1 :start2 :end2} -This function copies part of @var{seq2} into part of @var{seq1}. -The sequence @var{seq1} is not stretched or resized; the amount -of data copied is simply the shorter of the source and destination -(sub)sequences. The function returns @var{seq1}. - -If @var{seq1} and @var{seq2} are @code{eq}, then the replacement -will work correctly even if the regions indicated by the start -and end arguments overlap. However, if @var{seq1} and @var{seq2} -are lists which share storage but are not @code{eq}, and the -start and end arguments specify overlapping regions, the effect -is undefined. -@end defun - -@defun remove* item seq @t{&key :test :test-not :key :count :start :end :from-end} -This returns a copy of @var{seq} with all elements matching -@var{item} removed. The result may share storage with or be -@code{eq} to @var{seq} in some circumstances, but the original -@var{seq} will not be modified. The @code{:test}, @code{:test-not}, -and @code{:key} arguments define the matching test that is used; -by default, elements @code{eql} to @var{item} are removed. The -@code{:count} argument specifies the maximum number of matching -elements that can be removed (only the leftmost @var{count} matches -are removed). The @code{:start} and @code{:end} arguments specify -a region in @var{seq} in which elements will be removed; elements -outside that region are not matched or removed. The @code{:from-end} -argument, if true, says that elements should be deleted from the -end of the sequence rather than the beginning (this matters only -if @var{count} was also specified). -@end defun - -@defun delete* item seq @t{&key :test :test-not :key :count :start :end :from-end} -This deletes all elements of @var{seq} which match @var{item}. -It is a destructive operation. Since Emacs Lisp does not support -stretchable strings or vectors, this is the same as @code{remove*} -for those sequence types. On lists, @code{remove*} will copy the -list if necessary to preserve the original list, whereas -@code{delete*} will splice out parts of the argument list. -Compare @code{append} and @code{nconc}, which are analogous -non-destructive and destructive list operations in Emacs Lisp. -@end defun - -@findex remove-if -@findex remove-if-not -@findex delete-if -@findex delete-if-not -The predicate-oriented functions @code{remove-if}, @code{remove-if-not}, -@code{delete-if}, and @code{delete-if-not} are defined similarly. - -@defun remove-duplicates seq @t{&key :test :test-not :key :start :end :from-end} -This function returns a copy of @var{seq} with duplicate elements -removed. Specifically, if two elements from the sequence match -according to the @code{:test}, @code{:test-not}, and @code{:key} -arguments, only the rightmost one is retained. If @code{:from-end} -is true, the leftmost one is retained instead. If @code{:start} or -@code{:end} is specified, only elements within that subsequence are -examined or removed. -@end defun - -@defun delete-duplicates seq @t{&key :test :test-not :key :start :end :from-end} -This function deletes duplicate elements from @var{seq}. It is -a destructive version of @code{remove-duplicates}. -@end defun - -@defun substitute new old seq @t{&key :test :test-not :key :count :start :end :from-end} -This function returns a copy of @var{seq}, with all elements -matching @var{old} replaced with @var{new}. The @code{:count}, -@code{:start}, @code{:end}, and @code{:from-end} arguments may be -used to limit the number of substitutions made. -@end defun - -@defun nsubstitute new old seq @t{&key :test :test-not :key :count :start :end :from-end} -This is a destructive version of @code{substitute}; it performs -the substitution using @code{setcar} or @code{aset} rather than -by returning a changed copy of the sequence. -@end defun - -@findex substitute-if -@findex substitute-if-not -@findex nsubstitute-if -@findex nsubstitute-if-not -The @code{substitute-if}, @code{substitute-if-not}, @code{nsubstitute-if}, -and @code{nsubstitute-if-not} functions are defined similarly. For -these, a @var{predicate} is given in place of the @var{old} argument. - -@node Searching Sequences, Sorting Sequences, Sequence Functions, Sequences -@section Searching Sequences - -@noindent -These functions search for elements or subsequences in a sequence. -(See also @code{member*} and @code{assoc*}; @pxref{Lists}.) - -@defun find item seq @t{&key :test :test-not :key :start :end :from-end} -This function searches @var{seq} for an element matching @var{item}. -If it finds a match, it returns the matching element. Otherwise, -it returns @code{nil}. It returns the leftmost match, unless -@code{:from-end} is true, in which case it returns the rightmost -match. The @code{:start} and @code{:end} arguments may be used to -limit the range of elements that are searched. -@end defun - -@defun position item seq @t{&key :test :test-not :key :start :end :from-end} -This function is like @code{find}, except that it returns the -integer position in the sequence of the matching item rather than -the item itself. The position is relative to the start of the -sequence as a whole, even if @code{:start} is non-zero. The function -returns @code{nil} if no matching element was found. -@end defun - -@defun count item seq @t{&key :test :test-not :key :start :end} -This function returns the number of elements of @var{seq} which -match @var{item}. The result is always a nonnegative integer. -@end defun - -@findex find-if -@findex find-if-not -@findex position-if -@findex position-if-not -@findex count-if -@findex count-if-not -The @code{find-if}, @code{find-if-not}, @code{position-if}, -@code{position-if-not}, @code{count-if}, and @code{count-if-not} -functions are defined similarly. - -@defun mismatch seq1 seq2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key :start1 :end1 :start2 :end2 :from-end} -This function compares the specified parts of @var{seq1} and -@var{seq2}. If they are the same length and the corresponding -elements match (according to @code{:test}, @code{:test-not}, -and @code{:key}), the function returns @code{nil}. If there is -a mismatch, the function returns the index (relative to @var{seq1}) -of the first mismatching element. This will be the leftmost pair of -elements which do not match, or the position at which the shorter of -the two otherwise-matching sequences runs out. - -If @code{:from-end} is true, then the elements are compared from right -to left starting at @code{(1- @var{end1})} and @code{(1- @var{end2})}. -If the sequences differ, then one plus the index of the rightmost -difference (relative to @var{seq1}) is returned. - -An interesting example is @code{(mismatch str1 str2 :key 'upcase)}, -which compares two strings case-insensitively. -@end defun - -@defun search seq1 seq2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key :from-end :start1 :end1 :start2 :end2} -This function searches @var{seq2} for a subsequence that matches -@var{seq1} (or part of it specified by @code{:start1} and -@code{:end1}.) Only matches which fall entirely within the region -defined by @code{:start2} and @code{:end2} will be considered. -The return value is the index of the leftmost element of the -leftmost match, relative to the start of @var{seq2}, or @code{nil} -if no matches were found. If @code{:from-end} is true, the -function finds the @emph{rightmost} matching subsequence. -@end defun - -@node Sorting Sequences, , Searching Sequences, Sequences -@section Sorting Sequences - -@defun sort* seq predicate @t{&key :key} -This function sorts @var{seq} into increasing order as determined -by using @var{predicate} to compare pairs of elements. @var{predicate} -should return true (non-@code{nil}) if and only if its first argument -is less than (not equal to) its second argument. For example, -@code{<} and @code{string-lessp} are suitable predicate functions -for sorting numbers and strings, respectively; @code{>} would sort -numbers into decreasing rather than increasing order. - -This function differs from Emacs' built-in @code{sort} in that it -can operate on any type of sequence, not just lists. Also, it -accepts a @code{:key} argument which is used to preprocess data -fed to the @var{predicate} function. For example, - -@example -(setq data (sort* data 'string-lessp :key 'downcase)) -@end example - -@noindent -sorts @var{data}, a sequence of strings, into increasing alphabetical -order without regard to case. A @code{:key} function of @code{car} -would be useful for sorting association lists. It should only be a -simple accessor though, it's used heavily in the current -implementation. - -The @code{sort*} function is destructive; it sorts lists by actually -rearranging the @code{cdr} pointers in suitable fashion. -@end defun - -@defun stable-sort seq predicate @t{&key :key} -This function sorts @var{seq} @dfn{stably}, meaning two elements -which are equal in terms of @var{predicate} are guaranteed not to -be rearranged out of their original order by the sort. - -In practice, @code{sort*} and @code{stable-sort} are equivalent -in Emacs Lisp because the underlying @code{sort} function is -stable by default. However, this package reserves the right to -use non-stable methods for @code{sort*} in the future. -@end defun - -@defun merge type seq1 seq2 predicate @t{&key :key} -This function merges two sequences @var{seq1} and @var{seq2} by -interleaving their elements. The result sequence, of type @var{type} -(in the sense of @code{concatenate}), has length equal to the sum -of the lengths of the two input sequences. The sequences may be -modified destructively. Order of elements within @var{seq1} and -@var{seq2} is preserved in the interleaving; elements of the two -sequences are compared by @var{predicate} (in the sense of -@code{sort}) and the lesser element goes first in the result. -When elements are equal, those from @var{seq1} precede those from -@var{seq2} in the result. Thus, if @var{seq1} and @var{seq2} are -both sorted according to @var{predicate}, then the result will be -a merged sequence which is (stably) sorted according to -@var{predicate}. -@end defun - -@node Lists, Structures, Sequences, Top -@chapter Lists - -@noindent -The functions described here operate on lists. - -@menu -* List Functions:: `caddr', `first', `list*', etc. -* Substitution of Expressions:: `subst', `sublis', etc. -* Lists as Sets:: `member*', `adjoin', `union', etc. -* Association Lists:: `assoc*', `rassoc*', `acons', `pairlis' -@end menu - -@node List Functions, Substitution of Expressions, Lists, Lists -@section List Functions - -@noindent -This section describes a number of simple operations on lists, -i.e., chains of cons cells. - -@defun caddr x -This function is equivalent to @code{(car (cdr (cdr @var{x})))}. -Likewise, this package defines all 28 @code{c@var{xxx}r} functions -where @var{xxx} is up to four @samp{a}s and/or @samp{d}s. -All of these functions are @code{setf}-able, and calls to them -are expanded inline by the byte-compiler for maximum efficiency. -@end defun - -@defun first x -This function is a synonym for @code{(car @var{x})}. Likewise, -the functions @code{second}, @code{third}, @dots{}, through -@code{tenth} return the given element of the list @var{x}. -@end defun - -@defun rest x -This function is a synonym for @code{(cdr @var{x})}. -@end defun - -@defun endp x -Common Lisp defines this function to act like @code{null}, but -signaling an error if @code{x} is neither a @code{nil} nor a -cons cell. This package simply defines @code{endp} as a synonym -for @code{null}. -@end defun - -@defun list-length x -This function returns the length of list @var{x}, exactly like -@code{(length @var{x})}, except that if @var{x} is a circular -list (where the cdr-chain forms a loop rather than terminating -with @code{nil}), this function returns @code{nil}. (The regular -@code{length} function would get stuck if given a circular list.) -@end defun - -@defun list* arg &rest others -This function constructs a list of its arguments. The final -argument becomes the @code{cdr} of the last cell constructed. -Thus, @code{(list* @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})} is equivalent to -@code{(cons @var{a} (cons @var{b} @var{c}))}, and -@code{(list* @var{a} @var{b} nil)} is equivalent to -@code{(list @var{a} @var{b})}. - -(Note that this function really is called @code{list*} in Common -Lisp; it is not a name invented for this package like @code{member*} -or @code{defun*}.) -@end defun - -@defun ldiff list sublist -If @var{sublist} is a sublist of @var{list}, i.e., is @code{eq} to -one of the cons cells of @var{list}, then this function returns -a copy of the part of @var{list} up to but not including -@var{sublist}. For example, @code{(ldiff x (cddr x))} returns -the first two elements of the list @code{x}. The result is a -copy; the original @var{list} is not modified. If @var{sublist} -is not a sublist of @var{list}, a copy of the entire @var{list} -is returned. -@end defun - -@defun copy-list list -This function returns a copy of the list @var{list}. It copies -dotted lists like @code{(1 2 . 3)} correctly. -@end defun - -@defun copy-tree x &optional vecp -This function returns a copy of the tree of cons cells @var{x}. -Unlike @code{copy-sequence} (and its alias @code{copy-list}), -which copies only along the @code{cdr} direction, this function -copies (recursively) along both the @code{car} and the @code{cdr} -directions. If @var{x} is not a cons cell, the function simply -returns @var{x} unchanged. If the optional @var{vecp} argument -is true, this function copies vectors (recursively) as well as -cons cells. -@end defun - -@defun tree-equal x y @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function compares two trees of cons cells. If @var{x} and -@var{y} are both cons cells, their @code{car}s and @code{cdr}s are -compared recursively. If neither @var{x} nor @var{y} is a cons -cell, they are compared by @code{eql}, or according to the -specified test. The @code{:key} function, if specified, is -applied to the elements of both trees. @xref{Sequences}. -@end defun - -@iftex -@secno=3 -@end iftex - -@node Substitution of Expressions, Lists as Sets, List Functions, Lists -@section Substitution of Expressions - -@noindent -These functions substitute elements throughout a tree of cons -cells. (@xref{Sequence Functions}, for the @code{substitute} -function, which works on just the top-level elements of a list.) - -@defun subst new old tree @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function substitutes occurrences of @var{old} with @var{new} -in @var{tree}, a tree of cons cells. It returns a substituted -tree, which will be a copy except that it may share storage with -the argument @var{tree} in parts where no substitutions occurred. -The original @var{tree} is not modified. This function recurses -on, and compares against @var{old}, both @code{car}s and @code{cdr}s -of the component cons cells. If @var{old} is itself a cons cell, -then matching cells in the tree are substituted as usual without -recursively substituting in that cell. Comparisons with @var{old} -are done according to the specified test (@code{eql} by default). -The @code{:key} function is applied to the elements of the tree -but not to @var{old}. -@end defun - -@defun nsubst new old tree @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function is like @code{subst}, except that it works by -destructive modification (by @code{setcar} or @code{setcdr}) -rather than copying. -@end defun - -@findex subst-if -@findex subst-if-not -@findex nsubst-if -@findex nsubst-if-not -The @code{subst-if}, @code{subst-if-not}, @code{nsubst-if}, and -@code{nsubst-if-not} functions are defined similarly. - -@defun sublis alist tree @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function is like @code{subst}, except that it takes an -association list @var{alist} of @var{old}-@var{new} pairs. -Each element of the tree (after applying the @code{:key} -function, if any), is compared with the @code{car}s of -@var{alist}; if it matches, it is replaced by the corresponding -@code{cdr}. -@end defun - -@defun nsublis alist tree @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This is a destructive version of @code{sublis}. -@end defun - -@node Lists as Sets, Association Lists, Substitution of Expressions, Lists -@section Lists as Sets - -@noindent -These functions perform operations on lists which represent sets -of elements. - -@defun member* item list @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function searches @var{list} for an element matching @var{item}. -If a match is found, it returns the cons cell whose @code{car} was -the matching element. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. Elements -are compared by @code{eql} by default; you can use the @code{:test}, -@code{:test-not}, and @code{:key} arguments to modify this behavior. -@xref{Sequences}. - -Note that this function's name is suffixed by @samp{*} to avoid -the incompatible @code{member} function defined in Emacs. -(That function uses @code{equal} for comparisons; it is equivalent -to @code{(member* @var{item} @var{list} :test 'equal)}.) -@end defun - -@findex member-if -@findex member-if-not -The @code{member-if} and @code{member-if-not} functions -analogously search for elements which satisfy a given predicate. - -@defun tailp sublist list -This function returns @code{t} if @var{sublist} is a sublist of -@var{list}, i.e., if @var{sublist} is @code{eql} to @var{list} or to -any of its @code{cdr}s. -@end defun - -@defun adjoin item list @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function conses @var{item} onto the front of @var{list}, -like @code{(cons @var{item} @var{list})}, but only if @var{item} -is not already present on the list (as determined by @code{member*}). -If a @code{:key} argument is specified, it is applied to -@var{item} as well as to the elements of @var{list} during -the search, on the reasoning that @var{item} is ``about'' to -become part of the list. -@end defun - -@defun union list1 list2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function combines two lists which represent sets of items, -returning a list that represents the union of those two sets. -The result list will contain all items which appear in @var{list1} -or @var{list2}, and no others. If an item appears in both -@var{list1} and @var{list2} it will be copied only once. If -an item is duplicated in @var{list1} or @var{list2}, it is -undefined whether or not that duplication will survive in the -result list. The order of elements in the result list is also -undefined. -@end defun - -@defun nunion list1 list2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This is a destructive version of @code{union}; rather than copying, -it tries to reuse the storage of the argument lists if possible. -@end defun - -@defun intersection list1 list2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function computes the intersection of the sets represented -by @var{list1} and @var{list2}. It returns the list of items -which appear in both @var{list1} and @var{list2}. -@end defun - -@defun nintersection list1 list2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This is a destructive version of @code{intersection}. It -tries to reuse storage of @var{list1} rather than copying. -It does @emph{not} reuse the storage of @var{list2}. -@end defun - -@defun set-difference list1 list2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function computes the ``set difference'' of @var{list1} -and @var{list2}, i.e., the set of elements that appear in -@var{list1} but @emph{not} in @var{list2}. -@end defun - -@defun nset-difference list1 list2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This is a destructive @code{set-difference}, which will try -to reuse @var{list1} if possible. -@end defun - -@defun set-exclusive-or list1 list2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function computes the ``set exclusive or'' of @var{list1} -and @var{list2}, i.e., the set of elements that appear in -exactly one of @var{list1} and @var{list2}. -@end defun - -@defun nset-exclusive-or list1 list2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This is a destructive @code{set-exclusive-or}, which will try -to reuse @var{list1} and @var{list2} if possible. -@end defun - -@defun subsetp list1 list2 @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function checks whether @var{list1} represents a subset -of @var{list2}, i.e., whether every element of @var{list1} -also appears in @var{list2}. -@end defun - -@node Association Lists, , Lists as Sets, Lists -@section Association Lists - -@noindent -An @dfn{association list} is a list representing a mapping from -one set of values to another; any list whose elements are cons -cells is an association list. - -@defun assoc* item a-list @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function searches the association list @var{a-list} for an -element whose @code{car} matches (in the sense of @code{:test}, -@code{:test-not}, and @code{:key}, or by comparison with @code{eql}) -a given @var{item}. It returns the matching element, if any, -otherwise @code{nil}. It ignores elements of @var{a-list} which -are not cons cells. (This corresponds to the behavior of -@code{assq} and @code{assoc} in Emacs Lisp; Common Lisp's -@code{assoc} ignores @code{nil}s but considers any other non-cons -elements of @var{a-list} to be an error.) -@end defun - -@defun rassoc* item a-list @t{&key :test :test-not :key} -This function searches for an element whose @code{cdr} matches -@var{item}. If @var{a-list} represents a mapping, this applies -the inverse of the mapping to @var{item}. -@end defun - -@findex assoc-if -@findex assoc-if-not -@findex rassoc-if -@findex rassoc-if-not -The @code{assoc-if}, @code{assoc-if-not}, @code{rassoc-if}, -and @code{rassoc-if-not} functions are defined similarly. - -Two simple functions for constructing association lists are: - -@defun acons key value alist -This is equivalent to @code{(cons (cons @var{key} @var{value}) @var{alist})}. -@end defun - -@defun pairlis keys values &optional alist -This is equivalent to @code{(nconc (mapcar* 'cons @var{keys} @var{values}) -@var{alist})}. -@end defun - -@iftex -@chapno=18 -@end iftex - -@node Structures, Assertions, Lists, Top -@chapter Structures - -@noindent -The Common Lisp @dfn{structure} mechanism provides a general way -to define data types similar to C's @code{struct} types. A -structure is a Lisp object containing some number of @dfn{slots}, -each of which can hold any Lisp data object. Functions are -provided for accessing and setting the slots, creating or copying -structure objects, and recognizing objects of a particular structure -type. - -In true Common Lisp, each structure type is a new type distinct -from all existing Lisp types. Since the underlying Emacs Lisp -system provides no way to create new distinct types, this package -implements structures as vectors (or lists upon request) with a -special ``tag'' symbol to identify them. - -@defspec defstruct name slots@dots{} -The @code{defstruct} form defines a new structure type called -@var{name}, with the specified @var{slots}. (The @var{slots} -may begin with a string which documents the structure type.) -In the simplest case, @var{name} and each of the @var{slots} -are symbols. For example, - -@example -(defstruct person name age sex) -@end example - -@noindent -defines a struct type called @code{person} which contains three -slots. Given a @code{person} object @var{p}, you can access those -slots by calling @code{(person-name @var{p})}, @code{(person-age @var{p})}, -and @code{(person-sex @var{p})}. You can also change these slots by -using @code{setf} on any of these place forms: - -@example -(incf (person-age birthday-boy)) -@end example - -You can create a new @code{person} by calling @code{make-person}, -which takes keyword arguments @code{:name}, @code{:age}, and -@code{:sex} to specify the initial values of these slots in the -new object. (Omitting any of these arguments leaves the corresponding -slot ``undefined,'' according to the Common Lisp standard; in Emacs -Lisp, such uninitialized slots are filled with @code{nil}.) - -Given a @code{person}, @code{(copy-person @var{p})} makes a new -object of the same type whose slots are @code{eq} to those of @var{p}. - -Given any Lisp object @var{x}, @code{(person-p @var{x})} returns -true if @var{x} looks like a @code{person}, false otherwise. (Again, -in Common Lisp this predicate would be exact; in Emacs Lisp the -best it can do is verify that @var{x} is a vector of the correct -length which starts with the correct tag symbol.) - -Accessors like @code{person-name} normally check their arguments -(effectively using @code{person-p}) and signal an error if the -argument is the wrong type. This check is affected by -@code{(optimize (safety @dots{}))} declarations. Safety level 1, -the default, uses a somewhat optimized check that will detect all -incorrect arguments, but may use an uninformative error message -(e.g., ``expected a vector'' instead of ``expected a @code{person}''). -Safety level 0 omits all checks except as provided by the underlying -@code{aref} call; safety levels 2 and 3 do rigorous checking that will -always print a descriptive error message for incorrect inputs. -@xref{Declarations}. - -@example -(setq dave (make-person :name "Dave" :sex 'male)) - @result{} [cl-struct-person "Dave" nil male] -(setq other (copy-person dave)) - @result{} [cl-struct-person "Dave" nil male] -(eq dave other) - @result{} nil -(eq (person-name dave) (person-name other)) - @result{} t -(person-p dave) - @result{} t -(person-p [1 2 3 4]) - @result{} nil -(person-p "Bogus") - @result{} nil -(person-p '[cl-struct-person counterfeit person object]) - @result{} t -@end example - -In general, @var{name} is either a name symbol or a list of a name -symbol followed by any number of @dfn{struct options}; each @var{slot} -is either a slot symbol or a list of the form @samp{(@var{slot-name} -@var{default-value} @var{slot-options}@dots{})}. The @var{default-value} -is a Lisp form which is evaluated any time an instance of the -structure type is created without specifying that slot's value. - -Common Lisp defines several slot options, but the only one -implemented in this package is @code{:read-only}. A non-@code{nil} -value for this option means the slot should not be @code{setf}-able; -the slot's value is determined when the object is created and does -not change afterward. - -@example -(defstruct person - (name nil :read-only t) - age - (sex 'unknown)) -@end example - -Any slot options other than @code{:read-only} are ignored. - -For obscure historical reasons, structure options take a different -form than slot options. A structure option is either a keyword -symbol, or a list beginning with a keyword symbol possibly followed -by arguments. (By contrast, slot options are key-value pairs not -enclosed in lists.) - -@example -(defstruct (person (:constructor create-person) - (:type list) - :named) - name age sex) -@end example - -The following structure options are recognized. - -@table @code -@iftex -@itemmax=0 in -@advance@leftskip-.5@tableindent -@end iftex -@item :conc-name -The argument is a symbol whose print name is used as the prefix for -the names of slot accessor functions. The default is the name of -the struct type followed by a hyphen. The option @code{(:conc-name p-)} -would change this prefix to @code{p-}. Specifying @code{nil} as an -argument means no prefix, so that the slot names themselves are used -to name the accessor functions. - -@item :constructor -In the simple case, this option takes one argument which is an -alternate name to use for the constructor function. The default -is @code{make-@var{name}}, e.g., @code{make-person}. The above -example changes this to @code{create-person}. Specifying @code{nil} -as an argument means that no standard constructor should be -generated at all. - -In the full form of this option, the constructor name is followed -by an arbitrary argument list. @xref{Program Structure}, for a -description of the format of Common Lisp argument lists. All -options, such as @code{&rest} and @code{&key}, are supported. -The argument names should match the slot names; each slot is -initialized from the corresponding argument. Slots whose names -do not appear in the argument list are initialized based on the -@var{default-value} in their slot descriptor. Also, @code{&optional} -and @code{&key} arguments which don't specify defaults take their -defaults from the slot descriptor. It is valid to include arguments -which don't correspond to slot names; these are useful if they are -referred to in the defaults for optional, keyword, or @code{&aux} -arguments which @emph{do} correspond to slots. - -You can specify any number of full-format @code{:constructor} -options on a structure. The default constructor is still generated -as well unless you disable it with a simple-format @code{:constructor} -option. - -@example -(defstruct - (person - (:constructor nil) ; no default constructor - (:constructor new-person (name sex &optional (age 0))) - (:constructor new-hound (&key (name "Rover") - (dog-years 0) - &aux (age (* 7 dog-years)) - (sex 'canine)))) - name age sex) -@end example - -The first constructor here takes its arguments positionally rather -than by keyword. (In official Common Lisp terminology, constructors -that work By Order of Arguments instead of by keyword are called -``BOA constructors.'' No, I'm not making this up.) For example, -@code{(new-person "Jane" 'female)} generates a person whose slots -are @code{"Jane"}, 0, and @code{female}, respectively. - -The second constructor takes two keyword arguments, @code{:name}, -which initializes the @code{name} slot and defaults to @code{"Rover"}, -and @code{:dog-years}, which does not itself correspond to a slot -but which is used to initialize the @code{age} slot. The @code{sex} -slot is forced to the symbol @code{canine} with no syntax for -overriding it. - -@item :copier -The argument is an alternate name for the copier function for -this type. The default is @code{copy-@var{name}}. @code{nil} -means not to generate a copier function. (In this implementation, -all copier functions are simply synonyms for @code{copy-sequence}.) - -@item :predicate -The argument is an alternate name for the predicate which recognizes -objects of this type. The default is @code{@var{name}-p}. @code{nil} -means not to generate a predicate function. (If the @code{:type} -option is used without the @code{:named} option, no predicate is -ever generated.) - -In true Common Lisp, @code{typep} is always able to recognize a -structure object even if @code{:predicate} was used. In this -package, @code{typep} simply looks for a function called -@code{@var{typename}-p}, so it will work for structure types -only if they used the default predicate name. - -@item :include -This option implements a very limited form of C++-style inheritance. -The argument is the name of another structure type previously -created with @code{defstruct}. The effect is to cause the new -structure type to inherit all of the included structure's slots -(plus, of course, any new slots described by this struct's slot -descriptors). The new structure is considered a ``specialization'' -of the included one. In fact, the predicate and slot accessors -for the included type will also accept objects of the new type. - -If there are extra arguments to the @code{:include} option after -the included-structure name, these options are treated as replacement -slot descriptors for slots in the included structure, possibly with -modified default values. Borrowing an example from Steele: - -@example -(defstruct person name (age 0) sex) - @result{} person -(defstruct (astronaut (:include person (age 45))) - helmet-size - (favorite-beverage 'tang)) - @result{} astronaut - -(setq joe (make-person :name "Joe")) - @result{} [cl-struct-person "Joe" 0 nil] -(setq buzz (make-astronaut :name "Buzz")) - @result{} [cl-struct-astronaut "Buzz" 45 nil nil tang] - -(list (person-p joe) (person-p buzz)) - @result{} (t t) -(list (astronaut-p joe) (astronaut-p buzz)) - @result{} (nil t) - -(person-name buzz) - @result{} "Buzz" -(astronaut-name joe) - @result{} error: "astronaut-name accessing a non-astronaut" -@end example - -Thus, if @code{astronaut} is a specialization of @code{person}, -then every @code{astronaut} is also a @code{person} (but not the -other way around). Every @code{astronaut} includes all the slots -of a @code{person}, plus extra slots that are specific to -astronauts. Operations that work on people (like @code{person-name}) -work on astronauts just like other people. - -@item :print-function -In full Common Lisp, this option allows you to specify a function -which is called to print an instance of the structure type. The -Emacs Lisp system offers no hooks into the Lisp printer which would -allow for such a feature, so this package simply ignores -@code{:print-function}. - -@item :type -The argument should be one of the symbols @code{vector} or @code{list}. -This tells which underlying Lisp data type should be used to implement -the new structure type. Vectors are used by default, but -@code{(:type list)} will cause structure objects to be stored as -lists instead. - -The vector representation for structure objects has the advantage -that all structure slots can be accessed quickly, although creating -vectors is a bit slower in Emacs Lisp. Lists are easier to create, -but take a relatively long time accessing the later slots. - -@item :named -This option, which takes no arguments, causes a characteristic ``tag'' -symbol to be stored at the front of the structure object. Using -@code{:type} without also using @code{:named} will result in a -structure type stored as plain vectors or lists with no identifying -features. - -The default, if you don't specify @code{:type} explicitly, is to -use named vectors. Therefore, @code{:named} is only useful in -conjunction with @code{:type}. - -@example -(defstruct (person1) name age sex) -(defstruct (person2 (:type list) :named) name age sex) -(defstruct (person3 (:type list)) name age sex) - -(setq p1 (make-person1)) - @result{} [cl-struct-person1 nil nil nil] -(setq p2 (make-person2)) - @result{} (person2 nil nil nil) -(setq p3 (make-person3)) - @result{} (nil nil nil) - -(person1-p p1) - @result{} t -(person2-p p2) - @result{} t -(person3-p p3) - @result{} error: function person3-p undefined -@end example - -Since unnamed structures don't have tags, @code{defstruct} is not -able to make a useful predicate for recognizing them. Also, -accessors like @code{person3-name} will be generated but they -will not be able to do any type checking. The @code{person3-name} -function, for example, will simply be a synonym for @code{car} in -this case. By contrast, @code{person2-name} is able to verify -that its argument is indeed a @code{person2} object before -proceeding. - -@item :initial-offset -The argument must be a nonnegative integer. It specifies a -number of slots to be left ``empty'' at the front of the -structure. If the structure is named, the tag appears at the -specified position in the list or vector; otherwise, the first -slot appears at that position. Earlier positions are filled -with @code{nil} by the constructors and ignored otherwise. If -the type @code{:include}s another type, then @code{:initial-offset} -specifies a number of slots to be skipped between the last slot -of the included type and the first new slot. -@end table -@end defspec - -Except as noted, the @code{defstruct} facility of this package is -entirely compatible with that of Common Lisp. - -@iftex -@chapno=23 -@end iftex - -@node Assertions, Efficiency Concerns, Structures, Top -@chapter Assertions and Errors - -@noindent -This section describes two macros that test @dfn{assertions}, i.e., -conditions which must be true if the program is operating correctly. -Assertions never add to the behavior of a Lisp program; they simply -make ``sanity checks'' to make sure everything is as it should be. - -If the optimization property @code{speed} has been set to 3, and -@code{safety} is less than 3, then the byte-compiler will optimize -away the following assertions. Because assertions might be optimized -away, it is a bad idea for them to include side-effects. - -@defspec assert test-form [show-args string args@dots{}] -This form verifies that @var{test-form} is true (i.e., evaluates to -a non-@code{nil} value). If so, it returns @code{nil}. If the test -is not satisfied, @code{assert} signals an error. - -A default error message will be supplied which includes @var{test-form}. -You can specify a different error message by including a @var{string} -argument plus optional extra arguments. Those arguments are simply -passed to @code{error} to signal the error. - -If the optional second argument @var{show-args} is @code{t} instead -of @code{nil}, then the error message (with or without @var{string}) -will also include all non-constant arguments of the top-level -@var{form}. For example: - -@example -(assert (> x 10) t "x is too small: %d") -@end example - -This usage of @var{show-args} is an extension to Common Lisp. In -true Common Lisp, the second argument gives a list of @var{places} -which can be @code{setf}'d by the user before continuing from the -error. Since Emacs Lisp does not support continuable errors, it -makes no sense to specify @var{places}. -@end defspec - -@defspec check-type form type [string] -This form verifies that @var{form} evaluates to a value of type -@var{type}. If so, it returns @code{nil}. If not, @code{check-type} -signals a @code{wrong-type-argument} error. The default error message -lists the erroneous value along with @var{type} and @var{form} -themselves. If @var{string} is specified, it is included in the -error message in place of @var{type}. For example: - -@example -(check-type x (integer 1 *) "a positive integer") -@end example - -@xref{Type Predicates}, for a description of the type specifiers -that may be used for @var{type}. - -Note that in Common Lisp, the first argument to @code{check-type} -must be a @var{place} suitable for use by @code{setf}, because -@code{check-type} signals a continuable error that allows the -user to modify @var{place}. -@end defspec - -The following error-related macro is also defined: - -@defspec ignore-errors forms@dots{} -This executes @var{forms} exactly like a @code{progn}, except that -errors are ignored during the @var{forms}. More precisely, if -an error is signaled then @code{ignore-errors} immediately -aborts execution of the @var{forms} and returns @code{nil}. -If the @var{forms} complete successfully, @code{ignore-errors} -returns the result of the last @var{form}. -@end defspec - -@node Efficiency Concerns, Common Lisp Compatibility, Assertions, Top -@appendix Efficiency Concerns - -@appendixsec Macros - -@noindent -Many of the advanced features of this package, such as @code{defun*}, -@code{loop}, and @code{setf}, are implemented as Lisp macros. In -byte-compiled code, these complex notations will be expanded into -equivalent Lisp code which is simple and efficient. For example, -the forms - -@example -(incf i n) -(push x (car p)) -@end example - -@noindent -are expanded at compile-time to the Lisp forms - -@example -(setq i (+ i n)) -(setcar p (cons x (car p))) -@end example - -@noindent -which are the most efficient ways of doing these respective operations -in Lisp. Thus, there is no performance penalty for using the more -readable @code{incf} and @code{push} forms in your compiled code. - -@emph{Interpreted} code, on the other hand, must expand these macros -every time they are executed. For this reason it is strongly -recommended that code making heavy use of macros be compiled. -(The features labeled ``Special Form'' instead of ``Function'' in -this manual are macros.) A loop using @code{incf} a hundred times -will execute considerably faster if compiled, and will also -garbage-collect less because the macro expansion will not have -to be generated, used, and thrown away a hundred times. - -You can find out how a macro expands by using the -@code{cl-prettyexpand} function. - -@defun cl-prettyexpand form &optional full -This function takes a single Lisp form as an argument and inserts -a nicely formatted copy of it in the current buffer (which must be -in Lisp mode so that indentation works properly). It also expands -all Lisp macros which appear in the form. The easiest way to use -this function is to go to the @code{*scratch*} buffer and type, say, - -@example -(cl-prettyexpand '(loop for x below 10 collect x)) -@end example - -@noindent -and type @kbd{C-x C-e} immediately after the closing parenthesis; -the expansion - -@example -(block nil - (let* ((x 0) - (G1004 nil)) - (while (< x 10) - (setq G1004 (cons x G1004)) - (setq x (+ x 1))) - (nreverse G1004))) -@end example - -@noindent -will be inserted into the buffer. (The @code{block} macro is -expanded differently in the interpreter and compiler, so -@code{cl-prettyexpand} just leaves it alone. The temporary -variable @code{G1004} was created by @code{gensym}.) - -If the optional argument @var{full} is true, then @emph{all} -macros are expanded, including @code{block}, @code{eval-when}, -and compiler macros. Expansion is done as if @var{form} were -a top-level form in a file being compiled. For example, - -@example -(cl-prettyexpand '(pushnew 'x list)) - @print{} (setq list (adjoin 'x list)) -(cl-prettyexpand '(pushnew 'x list) t) - @print{} (setq list (if (memq 'x list) list (cons 'x list))) -(cl-prettyexpand '(caddr (member* 'a list)) t) - @print{} (car (cdr (cdr (memq 'a list)))) -@end example - -Note that @code{adjoin}, @code{caddr}, and @code{member*} all -have built-in compiler macros to optimize them in common cases. -@end defun - -@ifinfo -@example - -@end example -@end ifinfo -@appendixsec Error Checking - -@noindent -Common Lisp compliance has in general not been sacrificed for the -sake of efficiency. A few exceptions have been made for cases -where substantial gains were possible at the expense of marginal -incompatibility. - -The Common Lisp standard (as embodied in Steele's book) uses the -phrase ``it is an error if'' to indicate a situation which is not -supposed to arise in complying programs; implementations are strongly -encouraged but not required to signal an error in these situations. -This package sometimes omits such error checking in the interest of -compactness and efficiency. For example, @code{do} variable -specifiers are supposed to be lists of one, two, or three forms; -extra forms are ignored by this package rather than signaling a -syntax error. The @code{endp} function is simply a synonym for -@code{null} in this package. Functions taking keyword arguments -will accept an odd number of arguments, treating the trailing -keyword as if it were followed by the value @code{nil}. - -Argument lists (as processed by @code{defun*} and friends) -@emph{are} checked rigorously except for the minor point just -mentioned; in particular, keyword arguments are checked for -validity, and @code{&allow-other-keys} and @code{:allow-other-keys} -are fully implemented. Keyword validity checking is slightly -time consuming (though not too bad in byte-compiled code); -you can use @code{&allow-other-keys} to omit this check. Functions -defined in this package such as @code{find} and @code{member*} -do check their keyword arguments for validity. - -@ifinfo -@example - -@end example -@end ifinfo -@appendixsec Optimizing Compiler - -@noindent -Use of the optimizing Emacs compiler is highly recommended; many of the Common -Lisp macros emit -code which can be improved by optimization. In particular, -@code{block}s (whether explicit or implicit in constructs like -@code{defun*} and @code{loop}) carry a fair run-time penalty; the -optimizing compiler removes @code{block}s which are not actually -referenced by @code{return} or @code{return-from} inside the block. - -@node Common Lisp Compatibility, Old CL Compatibility, Efficiency Concerns, Top -@appendix Common Lisp Compatibility - -@noindent -Following is a list of all known incompatibilities between this -package and Common Lisp as documented in Steele (2nd edition). - -Certain function names, such as @code{member}, @code{assoc}, and -@code{floor}, were already taken by (incompatible) Emacs Lisp -functions; this package appends @samp{*} to the names of its -Common Lisp versions of these functions. - -The word @code{defun*} is required instead of @code{defun} in order -to use extended Common Lisp argument lists in a function. Likewise, -@code{defmacro*} and @code{function*} are versions of those forms -which understand full-featured argument lists. The @code{&whole} -keyword does not work in @code{defmacro} argument lists (except -inside recursive argument lists). - -The @code{eql} and @code{equal} predicates do not distinguish -between IEEE floating-point plus and minus zero. The @code{equalp} -predicate has several differences with Common Lisp; @pxref{Predicates}. - -The @code{setf} mechanism is entirely compatible, except that -setf-methods return a list of five values rather than five -values directly. Also, the new ``@code{setf} function'' concept -(typified by @code{(defun (setf foo) @dots{})}) is not implemented. - -The @code{do-all-symbols} form is the same as @code{do-symbols} -with no @var{obarray} argument. In Common Lisp, this form would -iterate over all symbols in all packages. Since Emacs obarrays -are not a first-class package mechanism, there is no way for -@code{do-all-symbols} to locate any but the default obarray. - -The @code{loop} macro is complete except that @code{loop-finish} -and type specifiers are unimplemented. - -The multiple-value return facility treats lists as multiple -values, since Emacs Lisp cannot support multiple return values -directly. The macros will be compatible with Common Lisp if -@code{values} or @code{values-list} is always used to return to -a @code{multiple-value-bind} or other multiple-value receiver; -if @code{values} is used without @code{multiple-value-@dots{}} -or vice-versa the effect will be different from Common Lisp. - -Many Common Lisp declarations are ignored, and others match -the Common Lisp standard in concept but not in detail. For -example, local @code{special} declarations, which are purely -advisory in Emacs Lisp, do not rigorously obey the scoping rules -set down in Steele's book. - -The variable @code{*gensym-counter*} starts out with a pseudo-random -value rather than with zero. This is to cope with the fact that -generated symbols become interned when they are written to and -loaded back from a file. - -The @code{defstruct} facility is compatible, except that structures -are of type @code{:type vector :named} by default rather than some -special, distinct type. Also, the @code{:type} slot option is ignored. - -The second argument of @code{check-type} is treated differently. - -@node Old CL Compatibility, Porting Common Lisp, Common Lisp Compatibility, Top -@appendix Old CL Compatibility - -@noindent -Following is a list of all known incompatibilities between this package -and the older Quiroz @file{cl.el} package. - -This package's emulation of multiple return values in functions is -incompatible with that of the older package. That package attempted -to come as close as possible to true Common Lisp multiple return -values; unfortunately, it could not be 100% reliable and so was prone -to occasional surprises if used freely. This package uses a simpler -method, namely replacing multiple values with lists of values, which -is more predictable though more noticeably different from Common Lisp. - -The @code{defkeyword} form and @code{keywordp} function are not -implemented in this package. - -The @code{member}, @code{floor}, @code{ceiling}, @code{truncate}, -@code{round}, @code{mod}, and @code{rem} functions are suffixed -by @samp{*} in this package to avoid collision with existing -functions in Emacs. The older package simply -redefined these functions, overwriting the built-in meanings and -causing serious portability problems. (Some more -recent versions of the Quiroz package changed the names to -@code{cl-member}, etc.; this package defines the latter names as -aliases for @code{member*}, etc.) - -Certain functions in the old package which were buggy or inconsistent -with the Common Lisp standard are incompatible with the conforming -versions in this package. For example, @code{eql} and @code{member} -were synonyms for @code{eq} and @code{memq} in that package, @code{setf} -failed to preserve correct order of evaluation of its arguments, etc. - -Finally, unlike the older package, this package is careful to -prefix all of its internal names with @code{cl-}. Except for a -few functions which are explicitly defined as additional features -(such as @code{floatp-safe} and @code{letf}), this package does not -export any non-@samp{cl-} symbols which are not also part of Common -Lisp. - -@ifinfo -@example - -@end example -@end ifinfo -@appendixsec The @code{cl-compat} package - -@noindent -The @dfn{CL} package includes emulations of some features of the -old @file{cl.el}, in the form of a compatibility package -@code{cl-compat}. To use it, put @code{(require 'cl-compat)} in -your program. - -The old package defined a number of internal routines without -@code{cl-} prefixes or other annotations. Call to these routines -may have crept into existing Lisp code. @code{cl-compat} -provides emulations of the following internal routines: -@code{pair-with-newsyms}, @code{zip-lists}, @code{unzip-lists}, -@code{reassemble-arglists}, @code{duplicate-symbols-p}, -@code{safe-idiv}. - -Some @code{setf} forms translated into calls to internal -functions that user code might call directly. The functions -@code{setnth}, @code{setnthcdr}, and @code{setelt} fall in -this category; they are defined by @code{cl-compat}, but the -best fix is to change to use @code{setf} properly. - -The @code{cl-compat} file defines the keyword functions -@code{keywordp}, @code{keyword-of}, and @code{defkeyword}, -which are not defined by the new @dfn{CL} package because the -use of keywords as data is discouraged. - -The @code{build-klist} mechanism for parsing keyword arguments -is emulated by @code{cl-compat}; the @code{with-keyword-args} -macro is not, however, and in any case it's best to change to -use the more natural keyword argument processing offered by -@code{defun*}. - -Multiple return values are treated differently by the two -Common Lisp packages. The old package's method was more -compatible with true Common Lisp, though it used heuristics -that caused it to report spurious multiple return values in -certain cases. The @code{cl-compat} package defines a set -of multiple-value macros that are compatible with the old -CL package; again, they are heuristic in nature, but they -are guaranteed to work in any case where the old package's -macros worked. To avoid name collision with the ``official'' -multiple-value facilities, the ones in @code{cl-compat} have -capitalized names: @code{Values}, @code{Values-list}, -@code{Multiple-value-bind}, etc. - -The functions @code{cl-floor}, @code{cl-ceiling}, @code{cl-truncate}, -and @code{cl-round} are defined by @code{cl-compat} to use the -old-style multiple-value mechanism, just as they did in the old -package. The newer @code{floor*} and friends return their two -results in a list rather than as multiple values. Note that -older versions of the old package used the unadorned names -@code{floor}, @code{ceiling}, etc.; @code{cl-compat} cannot use -these names because they conflict with Emacs built-ins. - -@node Porting Common Lisp, GNU Free Documentation License, Old CL Compatibility, Top -@appendix Porting Common Lisp - -@noindent -This package is meant to be used as an extension to Emacs Lisp, -not as an Emacs implementation of true Common Lisp. Some of the -remaining differences between Emacs Lisp and Common Lisp make it -difficult to port large Common Lisp applications to Emacs. For -one, some of the features in this package are not fully compliant -with ANSI or Steele; @pxref{Common Lisp Compatibility}. But there -are also quite a few features that this package does not provide -at all. Here are some major omissions that you will want to watch out -for when bringing Common Lisp code into Emacs. - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Case-insensitivity. Symbols in Common Lisp are case-insensitive -by default. Some programs refer to a function or variable as -@code{foo} in one place and @code{Foo} or @code{FOO} in another. -Emacs Lisp will treat these as three distinct symbols. - -Some Common Lisp code is written entirely in upper case. While Emacs -is happy to let the program's own functions and variables use -this convention, calls to Lisp builtins like @code{if} and -@code{defun} will have to be changed to lower case. - -@item -Lexical scoping. In Common Lisp, function arguments and @code{let} -bindings apply only to references physically within their bodies -(or within macro expansions in their bodies). Emacs Lisp, by -contrast, uses @dfn{dynamic scoping} wherein a binding to a -variable is visible even inside functions called from the body. - -Variables in Common Lisp can be made dynamically scoped by -declaring them @code{special} or using @code{defvar}. In Emacs -Lisp it is as if all variables were declared @code{special}. - -Often you can use code that was written for lexical scoping -even in a dynamically scoped Lisp, but not always. Here is -an example of a Common Lisp code fragment that would fail in -Emacs Lisp: - -@example -(defun map-odd-elements (func list) - (loop for x in list - for flag = t then (not flag) - collect (if flag x (funcall func x)))) - -(defun add-odd-elements (list x) - (map-odd-elements (lambda (a) (+ a x))) list) -@end example - -@noindent -In Common Lisp, the two functions' usages of @code{x} are completely -independent. In Emacs Lisp, the binding to @code{x} made by -@code{add-odd-elements} will have been hidden by the binding -in @code{map-odd-elements} by the time the @code{(+ a x)} function -is called. - -(This package avoids such problems in its own mapping functions -by using names like @code{cl-x} instead of @code{x} internally; -as long as you don't use the @code{cl-} prefix for your own -variables no collision can occur.) - -@xref{Lexical Bindings}, for a description of the @code{lexical-let} -form which establishes a Common Lisp-style lexical binding, and some -examples of how it differs from Emacs' regular @code{let}. - -@item -Reader macros. Common Lisp includes a second type of macro that -works at the level of individual characters. For example, Common -Lisp implements the quote notation by a reader macro called @code{'}, -whereas Emacs Lisp's parser just treats quote as a special case. -Some Lisp packages use reader macros to create special syntaxes -for themselves, which the Emacs parser is incapable of reading. - -The lack of reader macros, incidentally, is the reason behind -Emacs Lisp's unusual backquote syntax. Since backquotes are -implemented as a Lisp package and not built-in to the Emacs -parser, they are forced to use a regular macro named @code{`} -which is used with the standard function/macro call notation. - -@item -Other syntactic features. Common Lisp provides a number of -notations beginning with @code{#} that the Emacs Lisp parser -won't understand. For example, @samp{#| ... |#} is an -alternate comment notation, and @samp{#+lucid (foo)} tells -the parser to ignore the @code{(foo)} except in Lucid Common -Lisp. - -@item -Packages. In Common Lisp, symbols are divided into @dfn{packages}. -Symbols that are Lisp built-ins are typically stored in one package; -symbols that are vendor extensions are put in another, and each -application program would have a package for its own symbols. -Certain symbols are ``exported'' by a package and others are -internal; certain packages ``use'' or import the exported symbols -of other packages. To access symbols that would not normally be -visible due to this importing and exporting, Common Lisp provides -a syntax like @code{package:symbol} or @code{package::symbol}. - -Emacs Lisp has a single namespace for all interned symbols, and -then uses a naming convention of putting a prefix like @code{cl-} -in front of the name. Some Emacs packages adopt the Common Lisp-like -convention of using @code{cl:} or @code{cl::} as the prefix. -However, the Emacs parser does not understand colons and just -treats them as part of the symbol name. Thus, while @code{mapcar} -and @code{lisp:mapcar} may refer to the same symbol in Common -Lisp, they are totally distinct in Emacs Lisp. Common Lisp -programs which refer to a symbol by the full name sometimes -and the short name other times will not port cleanly to Emacs. - -Emacs Lisp does have a concept of ``obarrays,'' which are -package-like collections of symbols, but this feature is not -strong enough to be used as a true package mechanism. - -@item -The @code{format} function is quite different between Common -Lisp and Emacs Lisp. It takes an additional ``destination'' -argument before the format string. A destination of @code{nil} -means to format to a string as in Emacs Lisp; a destination -of @code{t} means to write to the terminal (similar to -@code{message} in Emacs). Also, format control strings are -utterly different; @code{~} is used instead of @code{%} to -introduce format codes, and the set of available codes is -much richer. There are no notations like @code{\n} for -string literals; instead, @code{format} is used with the -``newline'' format code, @code{~%}. More advanced formatting -codes provide such features as paragraph filling, case -conversion, and even loops and conditionals. - -While it would have been possible to implement most of Common -Lisp @code{format} in this package (under the name @code{format*}, -of course), it was not deemed worthwhile. It would have required -a huge amount of code to implement even a decent subset of -@code{format*}, yet the functionality it would provide over -Emacs Lisp's @code{format} would rarely be useful. - -@item -Vector constants use square brackets in Emacs Lisp, but -@code{#(a b c)} notation in Common Lisp. To further complicate -matters, Emacs has its own @code{#(} notation for -something entirely different---strings with properties. - -@item -Characters are distinct from integers in Common Lisp. The -notation for character constants is also different: @code{#\A} -instead of @code{?A}. Also, @code{string=} and @code{string-equal} -are synonyms in Emacs Lisp whereas the latter is case-insensitive -in Common Lisp. - -@item -Data types. Some Common Lisp data types do not exist in Emacs -Lisp. Rational numbers and complex numbers are not present, -nor are large integers (all integers are ``fixnums''). All -arrays are one-dimensional. There are no readtables or pathnames; -streams are a set of existing data types rather than a new data -type of their own. Hash tables, random-states, structures, and -packages (obarrays) are built from Lisp vectors or lists rather -than being distinct types. - -@item -The Common Lisp Object System (CLOS) is not implemented, -nor is the Common Lisp Condition System. However, the EIEIO package -from @uref{ftp://ftp.ultranet.com/pub/zappo} does implement some -CLOS functionality. - -@item -Common Lisp features that are completely redundant with Emacs -Lisp features of a different name generally have not been -implemented. For example, Common Lisp writes @code{defconstant} -where Emacs Lisp uses @code{defconst}. Similarly, @code{make-list} -takes its arguments in different ways in the two Lisps but does -exactly the same thing, so this package has not bothered to -implement a Common Lisp-style @code{make-list}. - -@item -A few more notable Common Lisp features not included in this -package: @code{compiler-let}, @code{tagbody}, @code{prog}, -@code{ldb/dpb}, @code{parse-integer}, @code{cerror}. - -@item -Recursion. While recursion works in Emacs Lisp just like it -does in Common Lisp, various details of the Emacs Lisp system -and compiler make recursion much less efficient than it is in -most Lisps. Some schools of thought prefer to use recursion -in Lisp over other techniques; they would sum a list of -numbers using something like - -@example -(defun sum-list (list) - (if list - (+ (car list) (sum-list (cdr list))) - 0)) -@end example - -@noindent -where a more iteratively-minded programmer might write one of -these forms: - -@example -(let ((total 0)) (dolist (x my-list) (incf total x)) total) -(loop for x in my-list sum x) -@end example - -While this would be mainly a stylistic choice in most Common Lisps, -in Emacs Lisp you should be aware that the iterative forms are -much faster than recursion. Also, Lisp programmers will want to -note that the current Emacs Lisp compiler does not optimize tail -recursion. -@end itemize - -@node GNU Free Documentation License, Function Index, Porting Common Lisp, Top -@appendix GNU Free Documentation License -@include doclicense.texi - -@node Function Index, Variable Index, GNU Free Documentation License, Top -@unnumbered Function Index - -@printindex fn - -@node Variable Index, , Function Index, Top -@unnumbered Variable Index - -@printindex vr - -@setchapternewpage odd -@contents -@bye - -@ignore - arch-tag: b61e7200-3bfa-4a70-a9d3-095e152696f8 -@end ignore