Mercurial > emacs
changeset 84019:8d0bde55a205
Move to ../doc/lispref
| author | Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org> |
|---|---|
| date | Thu, 06 Sep 2007 04:13:36 +0000 |
| parents | afab2a920193 |
| children | a81f341d1b4d |
| files | lispref/objects.texi |
| diffstat | 1 files changed, 0 insertions(+), 2036 deletions(-) [+] |
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--- a/lispref/objects.texi Thu Sep 06 04:13:30 2007 +0000 +++ /dev/null Thu Jan 01 00:00:00 1970 +0000 @@ -1,2036 +0,0 @@ -@c -*-texinfo-*- -@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. -@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, -@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. -@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. -@setfilename ../info/objects -@node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top -@chapter Lisp Data Types -@cindex object -@cindex Lisp object -@cindex type -@cindex data type - - A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp -programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of -possible objects. - - Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type -have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. -Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. -Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, -but not for ``the'' type of an object. - -@cindex primitive type - A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from -which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}. -Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These types -include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, -@dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{hash-table}, @dfn{subr}, and -@dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as -@dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) - - Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks -whether an object is a member of that type. - - Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are -@dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the -object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat -it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. - - In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each -variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in -the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp -variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value -you store in it, type and all. (Actually, a small number of Emacs -Lisp variables can only take on values of a certain type. -@xref{Variables with Restricted Values}.) - - This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read -syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how -to use these types can be found in later chapters. - -@menu -* Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. -* Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. -* Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. -* Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. -* Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure. -* Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. -* Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. -@end menu - -@node Printed Representation -@comment node-name, next, previous, up -@section Printed Representation and Read Syntax -@cindex printed representation -@cindex read syntax - - The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the -output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for -that object. Every data type has a unique printed representation. -The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the input accepted -by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that object. This -is not necessarily unique; many kinds of object have more than one -syntax. @xref{Read and Print}. - -@cindex hash notation - In most cases, an object's printed representation is also a read -syntax for the object. However, some types have no read syntax, since -it does not make sense to enter objects of these types as constants in -a Lisp program. These objects are printed in @dfn{hash notation}, -which consists of the characters @samp{#<}, a descriptive string -(typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and a -closing @samp{>}. For example: - -@example -(current-buffer) - @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> -@end example - -@noindent -Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the -error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}. -@kindex invalid-read-syntax - - In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In -Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the -text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to -emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your -mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. - - When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter -first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, -and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, -evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the -Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may -not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of -@code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. - -@node Comments -@comment node-name, next, previous, up -@section Comments -@cindex comments -@cindex @samp{;} in comment - - A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake -of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning -of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it -is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to -the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become -part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp -system. - - The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} -characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary -data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files -(@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. - - @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. - -@node Programming Types -@section Programming Types -@cindex programming types - - There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having -to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The -former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The -latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. - -@menu -* Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. -* Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. -* Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and - control characters. -* Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, - variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. -* Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. -* Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). -* Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. -* String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. -* Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. -* Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. -* Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. -* Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables. -* Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. -* Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another - expression, more fundamental but less pretty. -* Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. -* Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. -* Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used - functions. -@end menu - -@node Integer Type -@subsection Integer Type - - The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}268435456 to -268435455 (29 bits; i.e., -@ifnottex --2**28 -@end ifnottex -@tex -@math{-2^{28}} -@end tex -to -@ifnottex -2**28 - 1) -@end ifnottex -@tex -@math{2^{28}-1}) -@end tex -on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is -important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check -for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} is @minus{}268435456 on most -machines. - - The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an -optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The -printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a -leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. - -@example -@group --1 ; @r{The integer -1.} -1 ; @r{The integer 1.} -1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.} -+1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} -536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 29-bit implementation.} -@end group -@end example - - @xref{Numbers}, for more information. - -@node Floating Point Type -@subsection Floating Point Type - - Floating point numbers are the computer equivalent of scientific -notation; you can think of a floating point number as a fraction -together with a power of ten. The precise number of significant -figures and the range of possible exponents is machine-specific; Emacs -uses the C data type @code{double} to store the value, and internally -this records a power of 2 rather than a power of 10. - - The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either -a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or -both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, -@samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point -number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. - - @xref{Numbers}, for more information. - -@node Character Type -@subsection Character Type -@cindex @acronym{ASCII} character codes - - A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In -other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For -example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. - - Individual characters are used occasionally in programs, but it is -more common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed -of characters. @xref{String Type}. - - Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to -the range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that -range are valid character codes. Codes 0 through 127 are -@acronym{ASCII} codes; the rest are non-@acronym{ASCII} -(@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that represent keyboard -input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as -Control, Meta and Shift. - - There are special functions for producing a human-readable textual -description of a character for the sake of messages. @xref{Describing -Characters}. - -@menu -* Basic Char Syntax:: -* General Escape Syntax:: -* Ctl-Char Syntax:: -* Meta-Char Syntax:: -* Other Char Bits:: -@end menu - -@node Basic Char Syntax -@subsubsection Basic Char Syntax -@cindex read syntax for characters -@cindex printed representation for characters -@cindex syntax for characters -@cindex @samp{?} in character constant -@cindex question mark in character constant - - Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of -a character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax -for a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is -not clear programming. You should @emph{always} use the special read -syntax formats that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax -formats start with a question mark. - - The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark -followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character -@kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the -character @kbd{a}. - - For example: - -@example -?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 -@end example - - You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is -often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for -editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\(} is the -way to write the open-paren character. If the character is @samp{\}, -you @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. - -@cindex whitespace -@cindex bell character -@cindex @samp{\a} -@cindex backspace -@cindex @samp{\b} -@cindex tab (ASCII character) -@cindex @samp{\t} -@cindex vertical tab -@cindex @samp{\v} -@cindex formfeed -@cindex @samp{\f} -@cindex newline -@cindex @samp{\n} -@cindex return (ASCII character) -@cindex @samp{\r} -@cindex escape (ASCII character) -@cindex @samp{\e} -@cindex space (ASCII character) -@cindex @samp{\s} - You can express the characters control-g, backspace, tab, newline, -vertical tab, formfeed, space, return, del, and escape as @samp{?\a}, -@samp{?\b}, @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, -@samp{?\s}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\d}, and @samp{?\e}, respectively. -(@samp{?\s} followed by a dash has a different meaning---it applies -the ``super'' modifier to the following character.) Thus, - -@example -?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{control-g, @kbd{C-g}} -?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} -?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} -?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}} -?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} -?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} -?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} -?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} -?\s @result{} 32 ; @r{space character, @key{SPC}} -?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} -?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}} -@end example - -@cindex escape sequence - These sequences which start with backslash are also known as -@dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an -``escape character''; this terminology has nothing to do with the -character @key{ESC}. @samp{\s} is meant for use in character -constants; in string constants, just write the space. - - A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without -a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. -There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, -you should add a backslash before any of the characters -@samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing -Lisp code. You can also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as -space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of -the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t} or @samp{\s}, -instead of an actual whitespace character such as a tab or a space. -(If you do write backslash followed by a space, you should write -an extra space after the character constant to separate it from the -following text.) - -@node General Escape Syntax -@subsubsection General Escape Syntax - - In addition to the specific excape sequences for special important -control characters, Emacs provides general categories of escape syntax -that you can use to specify non-ASCII text characters. - -@cindex unicode character escape - For instance, you can specify characters by their Unicode values. -@code{?\u@var{nnnn}} represents a character that maps to the Unicode -code point @samp{U+@var{nnnn}}. There is a slightly different syntax -for specifying characters with code points above @code{#xFFFF}; -@code{\U00@var{nnnnnn}} represents the character whose Unicode code -point is @samp{U+@var{nnnnnn}}, if such a character is supported by -Emacs. If the corresponding character is not supported, Emacs signals -an error. - - This peculiar and inconvenient syntax was adopted for compatibility -with other programming languages. Unlike some other languages, Emacs -Lisp supports this syntax in only character literals and strings. - -@cindex @samp{\} in character constant -@cindex backslash in character constant -@cindex octal character code - The most general read syntax for a character represents the -character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question -mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three -octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, -@samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the -character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any -@acronym{ASCII} character, it is preferred only when the precise octal -value is more important than the @acronym{ASCII} representation. - -@example -@group -?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 -?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 -@end group -@end example - - To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, -and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex -digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. -Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the -character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the Latin-1 character -@iftex -@samp{@`a}. -@end iftex -@ifnottex -@samp{a} with grave accent. -@end ifnottex - -@node Ctl-Char Syntax -@subsubsection Control-Character Syntax - -@cindex control characters - Control characters can be represented using yet another read syntax. -This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the -corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For -example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the -character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. - - Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is -equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: - -@example -?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 -@end example - - In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those -that exist in @acronym{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn -any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character -codes for these non-@acronym{ASCII} control characters include the -@tex -@math{2^{26}} -@end tex -@ifnottex -2**26 -@end ifnottex -bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control -character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@acronym{ASCII} -control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X -and other window systems. - - For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as -the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: - -@example -?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 -@end example - -@noindent -As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character -@kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using -@samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer -to @key{DEL} in this way. - - For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, -we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard -input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not -affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of -people who read it. - -@node Meta-Char Syntax -@subsubsection Meta-Character Syntax - -@cindex meta characters - A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} -modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the -@tex -@math{2^{27}} -@end tex -@ifnottex -2**27 -@end ifnottex -bit set. We use high bits for this and other modifiers to make -possible a wide range of basic character codes. - - In a string, the -@tex -@math{2^{7}} -@end tex -@ifnottex -2**7 -@end ifnottex -bit attached to an @acronym{ASCII} character indicates a meta -character; thus, the meta characters that can fit in a string have -codes in the range from 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the -ordinary @acronym{ASCII} characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, -this convention was used for characters outside of strings as well.) - - The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, -@samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with -octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other -syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, -or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as -@samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. - -@node Other Char Bits -@subsubsection Other Character Modifier Bits - - The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; -for example, @acronym{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} -and @samp{A}. But @acronym{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control -character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the -@tex -@math{2^{25}} -@end tex -@ifnottex -2**25 -@end ifnottex -bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control -character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals -or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the -distinction to the computer in any way. The Lisp syntax for -the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O} -represents the shifted-control-o character. - -@cindex hyper characters -@cindex super characters -@cindex alt characters - The X Window System defines three other -@anchor{modifier bits}modifier bits that can be set -in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes -for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is -significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents -@kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. (Note that @samp{\s} with no following @samp{-} -represents the space character.) -@tex -Numerically, the bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}} -for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper. -@end tex -@ifnottex -Numerically, the -bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. -@end ifnottex - -@node Symbol Type -@subsection Symbol Type - - A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The -symbol name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In -ordinary Lisp use, with one single obarray (@pxref{Creating Symbols}, -a symbol's name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. - - A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a -property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp -objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized -reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is -intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, -independently. - - A symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}) is called a -@dfn{keyword symbol}. These symbols automatically act as constants, and -are normally used only by comparing an unknown symbol with a few -specific alternatives. - -@cindex @samp{\} in symbols -@cindex backslash in symbols - A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names -are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters -@samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters -of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. -(If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force -interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}?} are -less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other -characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a -backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in -the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the -backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab -character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the -letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you -must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to -do such a thing. - -@cindex CL note---case of letters -@quotation -@b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always -``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs -Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. -@end quotation - - Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in -the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. -This is not necessary in the fourth example because the rest of the name -makes it invalid as a number. - -@example -@group -foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} -FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} -char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} -@end group -@group -1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} - ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} -@end group -@group -\+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} - ; @r{(not a very readable name).} -@end group -@group -\(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} -@c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the -@c apparent misalignment of the comment. -+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} - ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} -@end group -@end example - -@ifinfo -@c This uses ``colon'' instead of a literal `:' because Info cannot -@c cope with a `:' in a menu -@cindex @samp{#@var{colon}} read syntax -@end ifinfo -@ifnotinfo -@cindex @samp{#:} read syntax -@end ifnotinfo - Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating -Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the -name of the symbol. - -@node Sequence Type -@subsection Sequence Types - - A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of -elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and -arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also -considered a sequence. - - Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and -bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string -elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t} -or @code{nil}. Char-tables are like vectors except that they are -indexed by any valid character code. The characters in a string can -have text properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text -Properties}), but vectors do not support text properties, even when -their elements happen to be characters. - - Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have -important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all -have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. -Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of -sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract -an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays -Vectors}. - - It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since -sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read -syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. -There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the -same object, @code{nil}. - -@node Cons Cell Type -@subsection Cons Cell and List Types -@cindex address field of register -@cindex decrement field of register -@cindex pointers - - A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the -@sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or -@dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of -this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds, -and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. - -@quotation -A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between -``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in -Lisp are implicit. -@end quotation - - A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the -@sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the -empty list. The empty list is actually the symbol @code{nil}. -@xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because most cons -cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list structure} has -come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. - -@cindex atoms - Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for -``an object which is not a cons cell.'' These objects are called -@dfn{atoms}. - -@cindex parenthesis -@cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists - The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and -consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a -right parenthesis. Here are examples of lists: - -@example -(A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} -() ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} -nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} -("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} -(A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} -(A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} -((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} - ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} -@end example - - Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element -of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The -@sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr} -slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next -element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to -hold @code{nil}. - - The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The -original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which -divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the -``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of -the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract -the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named -for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named -for its purpose, the construction of cells. - -@menu -* Box Diagrams:: Drawing pictures of lists. -* Dotted Pair Notation:: A general syntax for cons cells. -* Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. -@end menu - -@node Box Diagrams -@subsubsection Drawing Lists as Box Diagrams -@cindex box diagrams, for lists -@cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists - - A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are -shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read -such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be -understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be -understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element -list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}: - -@example -@group - --- --- --- --- --- --- - | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil - --- --- --- --- --- --- - | | | - | | | - --> rose --> violet --> buttercup -@end group -@end example - - In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to -any Lisp object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow -represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons -cell. - - In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first -cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second -box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next -pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons -cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The -@sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}. - - Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet -buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: - -@smallexample -@group - --------------- ---------------- ------------------- -| car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | -| rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | -| | | | | | | | | - --------------- ---------------- ------------------- -@end group -@end smallexample - -@cindex @code{nil} as a list -@cindex empty list - A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical -to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol -and a list. - - Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, -depicted with boxes and arrows: - -@example -@group - --- --- --- --- - | | |--> | | |--> nil - --- --- --- --- - | | - | | - --> A --> nil -@end group -@end example - - Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list, -@code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a -two-element list: - -@example -@group - --- --- --- --- --- --- - | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil - --- --- --- --- --- --- - | | | - | | | - | --> oak --> maple - | - | --- --- --- --- - --> | | |--> | | |--> nil - --- --- --- --- - | | - | | - --> pine --> needles -@end group -@end example - - The same list represented in the second box notation looks like this: - -@example -@group - -------------- -------------- -------------- -| car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | -| o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil | -| | | | | | | | | | - -- | --------- -------------- -------------- - | - | - | -------------- ---------------- - | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | - ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil | - | | | | | | - -------------- ---------------- -@end group -@end example - -@node Dotted Pair Notation -@subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation -@cindex dotted pair notation -@cindex @samp{.} in lists - - @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is a general syntax for cons cells that -represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, -@code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is -the object @var{a} and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted -pair notation is more general than list syntax because the @sc{cdr} -does not have to be a list. However, it is more cumbersome in cases -where list syntax would work. In dotted pair notation, the list -@samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 . nil)))}. For -@code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either notation, but list -notation is usually clearer and more convenient. When printing a -list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cons -cell is not a list. - - Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation. -This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: - -@example -@group - --- --- - | | |--> violet - --- --- - | - | - --> rose -@end group -@end example - - You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent -conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. -You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the -@sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet -. buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}. -The object looks like this: - -@example -@group - --- --- --- --- - | | |--> | | |--> buttercup - --- --- --- --- - | | - | | - --> rose --> violet -@end group -@end example - - The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because -there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put -@code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already -used for @code{violet}. - - The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))}, -and looks like this: - -@example -@group - --- --- --- --- - | | |--> | | |--> nil - --- --- --- --- - | | - | | - --> rose --> violet -@end group -@end example - - Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} -is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. -@ifnottex -It looks like this: - -@example -@group - --- --- --- --- --- --- - | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil - --- --- --- --- --- --- - | | | - | | | - --> rose --> violet --> buttercup -@end group -@end example -@end ifnottex - -@node Association List Type -@comment node-name, next, previous, up -@subsubsection Association List Type - - An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed -list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is -considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an -@dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored -in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as -stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of -the list. - - For example, - -@example -(setq alist-of-colors - '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) -@end example - -@noindent -sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the -first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. - - @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for -functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of -lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys. - -@node Array Type -@subsection Array Type - - An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for -holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of -memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same -amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires -time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements -at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the -beginning of a list.) - - Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and -char-tables. - - A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of -arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}. -These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer. -Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they -can hold arbitrary objects. - - The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has -index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For -example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The -largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array. -Once an array is created, its length is fixed. - - All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming -languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; -you can get the same effect with nested one-dimensional arrays.) Each -type of array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for -details. - - The array type is a subset of the sequence type, and contains the -string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the char-table -type. - -@node String Type -@subsection String Type - - A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many -purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as -the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent -text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation -of a string returns the same string. - - @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. - -@menu -* Syntax for Strings:: -* Non-ASCII in Strings:: -* Nonprinting Characters:: -* Text Props and Strings:: -@end menu - -@node Syntax for Strings -@subsubsection Syntax for Strings - -@cindex @samp{"} in strings -@cindex double-quote in strings -@cindex @samp{\} in strings -@cindex backslash in strings - The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of -characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a -double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} -is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise, -you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like -this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}. - -@cindex newline in strings - The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; -if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a -character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded -by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader -ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space -@w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. - -@example -"It is useful to include newlines -in documentation strings, -but the newline is \ -ignored if escaped." - @result{} "It is useful to include newlines -in documentation strings, -but the newline is ignored if escaped." -@end example - -@node Non-ASCII in Strings -@subsubsection Non-@acronym{ASCII} Characters in Strings - - You can include a non-@acronym{ASCII} international character in a string -constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations -for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte -and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, -such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as -multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that -makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a -unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the -string unibyte. - - You can also represent a multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its -character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many -digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character codes are all -greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit -terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be -interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to -terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents -one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. @w{@samp{\ }} in a string -constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any -character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape. - - You can represent a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its -character code, which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to -255 (0377 octal). If you write all such character codes in octal and -the string contains no other characters forcing it to be multibyte, -this produces a unibyte string. However, using any hex escape in a -string (even for an @acronym{ASCII} character) forces the string to be -multibyte. - - You can also specify characters in a string by their numeric values -in Unicode, using @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} (@pxref{Character Type}). - - @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two -text representations. - -@node Nonprinting Characters -@subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings - - You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant -as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a -character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the -nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between -them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a -description of the read syntax for characters. - - However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash -escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that -a string can hold are the @acronym{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not -distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control characters. - - Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a -string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention -that provides a way to represent meta versions of @acronym{ASCII} -characters in a string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate -a meta character in a string constant, this sets the -@tex -@math{2^{7}} -@end tex -@ifnottex -2**7 -@end ifnottex -bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in -@code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated -into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}. - - Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt -modifiers. - -@node Text Props and Strings -@subsubsection Text Properties in Strings - - A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in -addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy -text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no -special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text -properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and -print syntax: - -@example -#("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) -@end example - -@noindent -where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups -of three as follows: - -@example -@var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} -@end example - -@noindent -The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify -a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for -that range. For example, - -@example -#("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) -@end example - -@noindent -represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which -the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value -@code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value -@code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its -property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention -ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not -mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.) - -@node Vector Type -@subsection Vector Type - - A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It -takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In -a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of -the element from the beginning of the list.) - - The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square -bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the -read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants -for evaluation. - -@example -[1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} - @result{} [1 "two" (three)] -@end example - - @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. - -@node Char-Table Type -@subsection Char-Table Type - - A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, -indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to -make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information -to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to -inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for -special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for -a whole character set. - - The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector -except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning. - - @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. -Uses of char-tables include: - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}). - -@item -Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}). - -@item -Display tables (@pxref{Display Tables}). - -@item -Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}). -@end itemize - -@node Bool-Vector Type -@subsection Bool-Vector Type - - A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that -must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. - - The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except -that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string -constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector -as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which -specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, -and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character -correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector. - -@example -(make-bool-vector 3 t) - @result{} #&3"^G" -(make-bool-vector 3 nil) - @result{} #&3"^@@" -@end example - -@noindent -These results make sense, because the binary code for @samp{C-g} is -111 and @samp{C-@@} is the character with code 0. - - If the length is not a multiple of 8, the printed representation -shows extra elements, but these extras really make no difference. For -instance, in the next example, the two bool-vectors are equal, because -only the first 3 bits are used: - -@example -(equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007") - @result{} t -@end example - -@node Hash Table Type -@subsection Hash Table Type - - A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an -alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster. -Hash tables have no read syntax, and print using hash notation. -@xref{Hash Tables}, for functions that operate on hash tables. - -@example -(make-hash-table) - @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980> -@end example - -@node Function Type -@subsection Function Type - - Lisp functions are executable code, just like functions in other -programming languages. In Lisp, unlike most languages, functions are -also Lisp objects. A non-compiled function in Lisp is a lambda -expression: that is, a list whose first element is the symbol -@code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}). - - In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function -without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda -expression can be called as a function even though it has no name; to -emphasize this, we also call it an @dfn{anonymous function} -(@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). A named function in Lisp is just a -symbol with a valid function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining -Functions}). - - Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in -Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain -a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive -functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. - -@node Macro Type -@subsection Macro Type - - A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp -language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with -different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a -list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} -is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. - - Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in -@code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is -a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation -of how to write a macro. - - @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard -Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' -without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. - -@node Primitive Function Type -@subsection Primitive Function Type -@cindex special forms - - A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but -written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also -called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is -derived from ``subroutine.'') Most primitive functions evaluate all -their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does -not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} -(@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill - - It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is -primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive -with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive -function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined -function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code -may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage -redefinition of primitive functions}. - - The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written -in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the -functions written in Lisp. - - Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation -with the name of the subroutine. - -@example -@group -(symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} - ; @r{of the symbol.} - @result{} #<subr car> -(subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} - @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} -@end group -@end example - -@node Byte-Code Type -@subsection Byte-Code Function Type - -The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. -Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, -the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a -function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about -the byte compiler. - -The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function -object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the -opening @samp{[}. - -@node Autoload Type -@subsection Autoload Type - - An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol -@code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol, -where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload -object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code -that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file, -plus some other information about the real definition. - - After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function -definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then -called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of -view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition -in the loaded file. - - An autoload object is usually created with the function -@code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a -symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. - -@node Editing Types -@section Editing Types -@cindex editing types - - The types in the previous section are used for general programming -purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp -provides several additional data types for purposes connected with -editing. - -@menu -* Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. -* Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. -* Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. -* Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. -* Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. -* Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames. -* Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. -* Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. -* Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. -* Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. -@end menu - -@node Buffer Type -@subsection Buffer Type - - A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited -(@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file -(@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other -purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and -therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a -buffer need not be displayed in any window. - - The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not -used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are -different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an -existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting'' -text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result is -an entirely new string object. - - Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} -(@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current -buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current -buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs -functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a -whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions -(@pxref{Text}). - - Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: - -@itemize @bullet -@item -a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); - -@item -a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, - -@item -a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). - -@item -overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). - -@item -text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). -@end itemize - -@noindent -The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually -override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the -behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the -programs. - - A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text -of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. - - Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the -buffer name. - -@example -@group -(current-buffer) - @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> -@end group -@end example - -@node Marker Type -@subsection Marker Type - - A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers -therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the -position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the -position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points -between the same two characters in the buffer. - - Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the -current character position and the name of the buffer. - -@example -@group -(point-marker) - @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> -@end group -@end example - -@xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move -markers. - -@node Window Type -@subsection Window Type - - A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs -uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose -contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear -in one window, no window, or several windows. - - Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window -is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the -cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The -selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not -necessarily the case. - - Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to -one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. - - Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the -window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window -numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed -in any given window can change frequently. - -@example -@group -(selected-window) - @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> -@end group -@end example - - @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. - -@node Frame Type -@subsection Frame Type - - A @dfn{frame} is a screen area that contains one or more Emacs -windows; we also use the term ``frame'' to refer to the Lisp object -that Emacs uses to refer to the screen area. - - Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the -frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame -uniquely). - -@example -@group -(selected-frame) - @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80> -@end group -@end example - - @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. - -@node Window Configuration Type -@subsection Window Configuration Type -@cindex window layout in a frame - - A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, -sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the -same arrangement of windows later. - - Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax -looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window -Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to -window configurations. - -@node Frame Configuration Type -@subsection Frame Configuration Type -@cindex screen layout -@cindex window layout, all frames - - A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions, -sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is actually -a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose -@sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist element describes one frame, -which appears as the @sc{car} of that element. - - @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions -related to frame configurations. - -@node Process Type -@subsection Process Type - - The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself -runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a -Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. -Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in -subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. - - An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual -output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals -to the subprocess. - - Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, -giving the name of the process: - -@example -@group -(process-list) - @result{} (#<process shell>) -@end group -@end example - -@xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, -return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output -from processes. - -@node Stream Type -@subsection Stream Type - - A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for -characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as -output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, -strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) -obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output -streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a -@file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. - - The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used -as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable -@code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object -@code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer -(@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo -Area}). - - Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and -print as whatever primitive type they are. - - @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions -related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. - -@node Keymap Type -@subsection Keymap Type - - A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping -controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually -a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. - - @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix -keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. - -@node Overlay Type -@subsection Overlay Type - - An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a -buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and -contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property -names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the -buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read -syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of -positions. - - @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. - -@node Circular Objects -@section Read Syntax for Circular Objects -@cindex circular structure, read syntax -@cindex shared structure, read syntax -@cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax -@cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax - - To represent shared or circular structures within a complex of Lisp -objects, you can use the reader constructs @samp{#@var{n}=} and -@samp{#@var{n}#}. - - Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference; -subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in -another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how -to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element: - -@example -(#1=(a) b #1#) -@end example - -@noindent -This differs from ordinary syntax such as this - -@example -((a) b (a)) -@end example - -@noindent -which would result in a list whose first and third elements -look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference: - -@example -(prog1 nil - (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#))) -(eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) - @result{} t -(setq x '((a) b (a))) -(eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) - @result{} nil -@end example - - You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which -appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example: - -@example -#1=(a #1#) -@end example - -@noindent -This makes a list whose second element is the list itself. -Here's how you can see that it really works: - -@example -(prog1 nil - (setq x '#1=(a #1#))) -(eq x (cadr x)) - @result{} t -@end example - - The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared -structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle} -to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}. - -@node Type Predicates -@section Type Predicates -@cindex type checking -@kindex wrong-type-argument - - The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on -the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could -not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data -types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to -the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to -a type that the function can use. - - All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments -when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an -argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you -pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: - -@example -@group -(+ 2 'a) - @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a -@end group -@end example - -@cindex type predicates -@cindex testing types - If you want your program to handle different types differently, you -must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type -of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a -type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for -combinations of types. - - A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if -the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. -Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type -predicates' names end with @samp{p}. - - Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for -a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. - -@example -(defun add-on (x) - (cond ((symbolp x) - ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. - (setq list (cons x list))) - ((listp x) - ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. - (setq list (append x list))) - (t - ;; We handle only symbols and lists. - (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) -@end example - - Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, -with references to further information. - -@table @code -@item atom -@xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. - -@item arrayp -@xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. - -@item bool-vector-p -@xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}. - -@item bufferp -@xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. - -@item byte-code-function-p -@xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. - -@item case-table-p -@xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}. - -@item char-or-string-p -@xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. - -@item char-table-p -@xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}. - -@item commandp -@xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. - -@item consp -@xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. - -@item display-table-p -@xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}. - -@item floatp -@xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. - -@item frame-configuration-p -@xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}. - -@item frame-live-p -@xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. - -@item framep -@xref{Frames, framep}. - -@item functionp -@xref{Functions, functionp}. - -@item hash-table-p -@xref{Other Hash, hash-table-p}. - -@item integer-or-marker-p -@xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. - -@item integerp -@xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. - -@item keymapp -@xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. - -@item keywordp -@xref{Constant Variables}. - -@item listp -@xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. - -@item markerp -@xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. - -@item wholenump -@xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. - -@item nlistp -@xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. - -@item numberp -@xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. - -@item number-or-marker-p -@xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. - -@item overlayp -@xref{Overlays, overlayp}. - -@item processp -@xref{Processes, processp}. - -@item sequencep -@xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. - -@item stringp -@xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. - -@item subrp -@xref{Function Cells, subrp}. - -@item symbolp -@xref{Symbols, symbolp}. - -@item syntax-table-p -@xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. - -@item user-variable-p -@xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. - -@item vectorp -@xref{Vectors, vectorp}. - -@item window-configuration-p -@xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. - -@item window-live-p -@xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. - -@item windowp -@xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. - -@item booleanp -@xref{nil and t, booleanp}. - -@item string-or-null-p -@xref{Predicates for Strings, string-or-null-p}. -@end table - - The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the -function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and -only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp -Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive -types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than -@code{type-of}. - -@defun type-of object -This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of -@var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol}, -@code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector}, -@code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{hash-table}, @code{subr}, -@code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window}, -@code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or -@code{window-configuration}. - -@example -(type-of 1) - @result{} integer -@group -(type-of 'nil) - @result{} symbol -(type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} - @result{} symbol -(type-of '(x)) - @result{} cons -@end group -@end example -@end defun - -@node Equality Predicates -@section Equality Predicates -@cindex equality - - Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two -objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific -types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter -describing the data type. - -@defun eq object1 object2 -This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are -the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. - -@code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are -integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally -unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are -@code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two -arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily -@code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same -object, meaning that a change in the contents of one will be reflected -by the same change in the contents of the other. - -@example -@group -(eq 'foo 'foo) - @result{} t -@end group - -@group -(eq 456 456) - @result{} t -@end group - -@group -(eq "asdf" "asdf") - @result{} nil -@end group - -@group -(eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) - @result{} nil -@end group - -@group -(setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) - @result{} (1 (2 (3))) -(eq foo foo) - @result{} t -(eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) - @result{} nil -@end group - -@group -(eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) - @result{} nil -@end group - -@group -(eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) - @result{} nil -@end group -@end example - -The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct -from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression. -Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating -Symbols}. - -@example -@group -(eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo) - @result{} nil -@end group -@end example -@end defun - -@defun equal object1 object2 -This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have -equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its -arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical -arguments to see if their elements or contents are the same. So, if two -objects are @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not -always true. - -@example -@group -(equal 'foo 'foo) - @result{} t -@end group - -@group -(equal 456 456) - @result{} t -@end group - -@group -(equal "asdf" "asdf") - @result{} t -@end group -@group -(eq "asdf" "asdf") - @result{} nil -@end group - -@group -(equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) - @result{} t -@end group -@group -(eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) - @result{} nil -@end group - -@group -(equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) - @result{} t -@end group -@group -(eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) - @result{} nil -@end group - -@group -(equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) - @result{} t -@end group - -@group -(eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) - @result{} nil -@end group -@end example - -Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of -text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. For -technical reasons, a unibyte string and a multibyte string are -@code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of -character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through -127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). -(@pxref{Text Representations}). - -@example -@group -(equal "asdf" "ASDF") - @result{} nil -@end group -@end example - -However, two distinct buffers are never considered @code{equal}, even if -their textual contents are the same. -@end defun - - The test for equality is implemented recursively; for example, given -two cons cells @var{x} and @var{y}, @code{(equal @var{x} @var{y})} -returns @code{t} if and only if both the expressions below return -@code{t}: - -@example -(equal (car @var{x}) (car @var{y})) -(equal (cdr @var{x}) (cdr @var{y})) -@end example - -Because of this recursive method, circular lists may therefore cause -infinite recursion (leading to an error). - -@ignore - arch-tag: 9711a66e-4749-4265-9e8c-972d55b67096 -@end ignore