changeset 84019:8d0bde55a205

Move to ../doc/lispref
author Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
date Thu, 06 Sep 2007 04:13:36 +0000
parents afab2a920193
children a81f341d1b4d
files lispref/objects.texi
diffstat 1 files changed, 0 insertions(+), 2036 deletions(-) [+]
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--- a/lispref/objects.texi	Thu Sep 06 04:13:30 2007 +0000
+++ /dev/null	Thu Jan 01 00:00:00 1970 +0000
@@ -1,2036 +0,0 @@
-@c -*-texinfo-*-
-@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
-@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001,
-@c   2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007  Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
-@setfilename ../info/objects
-@node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top
-@chapter Lisp Data Types
-@cindex object
-@cindex Lisp object
-@cindex type
-@cindex data type
-
-  A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp
-programs.  For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of
-possible objects.
-
-  Every object belongs to at least one type.  Objects of the same type
-have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts.
-Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types.
-Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type,
-but not for ``the'' type of an object.
-
-@cindex primitive type
-  A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs.  These, from
-which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}.
-Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type.  These types
-include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol},
-@dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{hash-table}, @dfn{subr}, and
-@dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as
-@dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing.  (@xref{Editing Types}.)
-
-  Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks
-whether an object is a member of that type.
-
-  Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are
-@dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the
-object itself.  For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat
-it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number.
-
-  In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each
-variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in
-the data.  Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp.  A Lisp
-variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value
-you store in it, type and all.  (Actually, a small number of Emacs
-Lisp variables can only take on values of a certain type.
-@xref{Variables with Restricted Values}.)
-
-  This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read
-syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp.  Details on how
-to use these types can be found in later chapters.
-
-@menu
-* Printed Representation::      How Lisp objects are represented as text.
-* Comments::                    Comments and their formatting conventions.
-* Programming Types::           Types found in all Lisp systems.
-* Editing Types::               Types specific to Emacs.
-* Circular Objects::            Read syntax for circular structure.
-* Type Predicates::             Tests related to types.
-* Equality Predicates::         Tests of equality between any two objects.
-@end menu
-
-@node Printed Representation
-@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
-@section Printed Representation and Read Syntax
-@cindex printed representation
-@cindex read syntax
-
-  The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the
-output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for
-that object.  Every data type has a unique printed representation.
-The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the input accepted
-by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that object.  This
-is not necessarily unique; many kinds of object have more than one
-syntax.  @xref{Read and Print}.
-
-@cindex hash notation
-  In most cases, an object's printed representation is also a read
-syntax for the object.  However, some types have no read syntax, since
-it does not make sense to enter objects of these types as constants in
-a Lisp program.  These objects are printed in @dfn{hash notation},
-which consists of the characters @samp{#<}, a descriptive string
-(typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and a
-closing @samp{>}.  For example:
-
-@example
-(current-buffer)
-     @result{} #<buffer objects.texi>
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the
-error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}.
-@kindex invalid-read-syntax
-
-  In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form.  In
-Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the
-text that is the object's read syntax.  Often there is no need to
-emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your
-mind, or you will occasionally be very confused.
-
-  When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter
-first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object,
-and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}).  However,
-evaluation and reading are separate activities.  Reading returns the
-Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may
-not be evaluated later.  @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of
-@code{read}, the basic function for reading objects.
-
-@node Comments
-@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
-@section Comments
-@cindex comments
-@cindex @samp{;} in comment
-
-  A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake
-of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning
-of the program.  In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it
-is not within a string or character constant.  The comment continues to
-the end of line.  The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become
-part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp
-system.
-
-  The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count}
-characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary
-data.  The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files
-(@pxref{Byte Compilation}).  It isn't meant for source files, however.
-
-  @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments.
-
-@node Programming Types
-@section Programming Types
-@cindex programming types
-
-  There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having
-to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing.  The
-former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another.  The
-latter are unique to Emacs Lisp.
-
-@menu
-* Integer Type::        Numbers without fractional parts.
-* Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range.
-* Character Type::      The representation of letters, numbers and
-                        control characters.
-* Symbol Type::         A multi-use object that refers to a function,
-                        variable, or property list, and has a unique identity.
-* Sequence Type::       Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences.
-* Cons Cell Type::      Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells).
-* Array Type::          Arrays include strings and vectors.
-* String Type::         An (efficient) array of characters.
-* Vector Type::         One-dimensional arrays.
-* Char-Table Type::     One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters.
-* Bool-Vector Type::    One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}.
-* Hash Table Type::     Super-fast lookup tables.
-* Function Type::       A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere.
-* Macro Type::          A method of expanding an expression into another
-                          expression, more fundamental but less pretty.
-* Primitive Function Type::     A function written in C, callable from Lisp.
-* Byte-Code Type::      A function written in Lisp, then compiled.
-* Autoload Type::       A type used for automatically loading seldom-used
-                        functions.
-@end menu
-
-@node Integer Type
-@subsection Integer Type
-
-  The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}268435456 to
-268435455 (29 bits; i.e.,
-@ifnottex
--2**28
-@end ifnottex
-@tex
-@math{-2^{28}}
-@end tex
-to
-@ifnottex
-2**28 - 1)
-@end ifnottex
-@tex
-@math{2^{28}-1})
-@end tex
-on most machines.  (Some machines may provide a wider range.)  It is
-important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check
-for overflow.  Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} is @minus{}268435456 on most
-machines.
-
-  The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an
-optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end.  The
-printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a
-leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}.
-
-@example
-@group
--1               ; @r{The integer -1.}
-1                ; @r{The integer 1.}
-1.               ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
-+1               ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
-536870913        ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 29-bit implementation.}
-@end group
-@end example
-
-  @xref{Numbers}, for more information.
-
-@node Floating Point Type
-@subsection Floating Point Type
-
-  Floating point numbers are the computer equivalent of scientific
-notation; you can think of a floating point number as a fraction
-together with a power of ten.  The precise number of significant
-figures and the range of possible exponents is machine-specific; Emacs
-uses the C data type @code{double} to store the value, and internally
-this records a power of 2 rather than a power of 10.
-
-  The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either
-a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or
-both.  For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2},
-@samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point
-number whose value is 1500.  They are all equivalent.
-
-  @xref{Numbers}, for more information.
-
-@node Character Type
-@subsection Character Type
-@cindex @acronym{ASCII} character codes
-
-  A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer.  In
-other words, characters are represented by their character codes.  For
-example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}.
-
-  Individual characters are used occasionally in programs, but it is
-more common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed
-of characters.  @xref{String Type}.
-
-  Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to
-the range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits.  But not all values in that
-range are valid character codes.  Codes 0 through 127 are
-@acronym{ASCII} codes; the rest are non-@acronym{ASCII}
-(@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}).  Characters that represent keyboard
-input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as
-Control, Meta and Shift.
-
-  There are special functions for producing a human-readable textual
-description of a character for the sake of messages.  @xref{Describing
-Characters}.
-
-@menu
-* Basic Char Syntax::
-* General Escape Syntax::
-* Ctl-Char Syntax::
-* Meta-Char Syntax::
-* Other Char Bits::
-@end menu
-
-@node Basic Char Syntax
-@subsubsection Basic Char Syntax
-@cindex read syntax for characters
-@cindex printed representation for characters
-@cindex syntax for characters
-@cindex @samp{?} in character constant
-@cindex question mark in character constant
-
-  Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of
-a character is a decimal number.  This is also a possible read syntax
-for a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is
-not clear programming.  You should @emph{always} use the special read
-syntax formats that Emacs Lisp provides for characters.  These syntax
-formats start with a question mark.
-
-  The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark
-followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character
-@kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the
-character @kbd{a}.
-
-  For example:
-
-@example
-?Q @result{} 81     ?q @result{} 113
-@end example
-
-  You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is
-often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for
-editing Lisp code don't get confused.  For example, @samp{?\(} is the
-way to write the open-paren character.  If the character is @samp{\},
-you @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}.
-
-@cindex whitespace
-@cindex bell character
-@cindex @samp{\a}
-@cindex backspace
-@cindex @samp{\b}
-@cindex tab (ASCII character)
-@cindex @samp{\t}
-@cindex vertical tab
-@cindex @samp{\v}
-@cindex formfeed
-@cindex @samp{\f}
-@cindex newline
-@cindex @samp{\n}
-@cindex return (ASCII character)
-@cindex @samp{\r}
-@cindex escape (ASCII character)
-@cindex @samp{\e}
-@cindex space (ASCII character)
-@cindex @samp{\s}
-  You can express the characters control-g, backspace, tab, newline,
-vertical tab, formfeed, space, return, del, and escape as @samp{?\a},
-@samp{?\b}, @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f},
-@samp{?\s}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\d}, and @samp{?\e}, respectively.
-(@samp{?\s} followed by a dash has a different meaning---it applies
-the ``super'' modifier to the following character.)  Thus,
-
-@example
-?\a @result{} 7                 ; @r{control-g, @kbd{C-g}}
-?\b @result{} 8                 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}}
-?\t @result{} 9                 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}}
-?\n @result{} 10                ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}}
-?\v @result{} 11                ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}}
-?\f @result{} 12                ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}}
-?\r @result{} 13                ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}}
-?\e @result{} 27                ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}}
-?\s @result{} 32                ; @r{space character, @key{SPC}}
-?\\ @result{} 92                ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}}
-?\d @result{} 127               ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}}
-@end example
-
-@cindex escape sequence
-  These sequences which start with backslash are also known as
-@dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an
-``escape character''; this terminology has nothing to do with the
-character @key{ESC}.  @samp{\s} is meant for use in character
-constants; in string constants, just write the space.
-
-  A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without
-a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}.
-There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters.  However,
-you should add a backslash before any of the characters
-@samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing
-Lisp code.  You can also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as
-space, tab, newline and formfeed.  However, it is cleaner to use one of
-the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t} or @samp{\s},
-instead of an actual whitespace character such as a tab or a space.
-(If you do write backslash followed by a space, you should write
-an extra space after the character constant to separate it from the
-following text.)
-
-@node General Escape Syntax
-@subsubsection General Escape Syntax
-
-  In addition to the specific excape sequences for special important
-control characters, Emacs provides general categories of escape syntax
-that you can use to specify non-ASCII text characters.
-
-@cindex unicode character escape
-  For instance, you can specify characters by their Unicode values.
-@code{?\u@var{nnnn}} represents a character that maps to the Unicode
-code point @samp{U+@var{nnnn}}.  There is a slightly different syntax
-for specifying characters with code points above @code{#xFFFF};
-@code{\U00@var{nnnnnn}} represents the character whose Unicode code
-point is @samp{U+@var{nnnnnn}}, if such a character is supported by
-Emacs.  If the corresponding character is not supported, Emacs signals
-an error.
-
-  This peculiar and inconvenient syntax was adopted for compatibility
-with other programming languages.  Unlike some other languages, Emacs
-Lisp supports this syntax in only character literals and strings.
-
-@cindex @samp{\} in character constant
-@cindex backslash in character constant
-@cindex octal character code
-  The most general read syntax for a character represents the
-character code in either octal or hex.  To use octal, write a question
-mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three
-octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A},
-@samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the
-character @kbd{C-b}.  Although this syntax can represent any
-@acronym{ASCII} character, it is preferred only when the precise octal
-value is more important than the @acronym{ASCII} representation.
-
-@example
-@group
-?\012 @result{} 10         ?\n @result{} 10         ?\C-j @result{} 10
-?\101 @result{} 65         ?A @result{} 65
-@end group
-@end example
-
-  To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x},
-and the hexadecimal character code.  You can use any number of hex
-digits, so you can represent any character code in this way.
-Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the
-character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the Latin-1 character
-@iftex
-@samp{@`a}.
-@end iftex
-@ifnottex
-@samp{a} with grave accent.
-@end ifnottex
-
-@node Ctl-Char Syntax
-@subsubsection Control-Character Syntax
-
-@cindex control characters
-  Control characters can be represented using yet another read syntax.
-This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the
-corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case.  For
-example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the
-character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9.
-
-  Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is
-equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}:
-
-@example
-?\^I @result{} 9     ?\C-I @result{} 9
-@end example
-
-  In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those
-that exist in @acronym{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn
-any character into a control character with @samp{C-}.  The character
-codes for these non-@acronym{ASCII} control characters include the
-@tex
-@math{2^{26}}
-@end tex
-@ifnottex
-2**26
-@end ifnottex
-bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control
-character.  Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@acronym{ASCII}
-control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X
-and other window systems.
-
-  For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as
-the control equivalent of @kbd{?}:
-
-@example
-?\^? @result{} 127     ?\C-? @result{} 127
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character
-@kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using
-@samp{\C-}.  It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer
-to @key{DEL} in this way.
-
-  For representing control characters to be found in files or strings,
-we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard
-input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax.  Which one you use does not
-affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of
-people who read it.
-
-@node Meta-Char Syntax
-@subsubsection Meta-Character Syntax
-
-@cindex meta characters
-  A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META}
-modifier key.  The integer that represents such a character has the
-@tex
-@math{2^{27}}
-@end tex
-@ifnottex
-2**27
-@end ifnottex
-bit set.  We use high bits for this and other modifiers to make
-possible a wide range of basic character codes.
-
-  In a string, the
-@tex
-@math{2^{7}}
-@end tex
-@ifnottex
-2**7
-@end ifnottex
-bit attached to an @acronym{ASCII} character indicates a meta
-character; thus, the meta characters that can fit in a string have
-codes in the range from 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the
-ordinary @acronym{ASCII} characters.  (In Emacs versions 18 and older,
-this convention was used for characters outside of strings as well.)
-
-  The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}.  For example,
-@samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}.  You can use @samp{\M-} together with
-octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other
-syntax for a character.  Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A},
-or as @samp{?\M-\101}.  Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as
-@samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}.
-
-@node Other Char Bits
-@subsubsection Other Character Modifier Bits
-
-  The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code;
-for example, @acronym{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a}
-and @samp{A}.  But @acronym{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control
-character is upper case or lower case.  Emacs uses the
-@tex
-@math{2^{25}}
-@end tex
-@ifnottex
-2**25
-@end ifnottex
-bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control
-character.  This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals
-or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the
-distinction to the computer in any way.  The Lisp syntax for
-the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O}
-represents the shifted-control-o character.
-
-@cindex hyper characters
-@cindex super characters
-@cindex alt characters
-  The X Window System defines three other
-@anchor{modifier bits}modifier bits that can be set
-in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}.  The syntaxes
-for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}.  (Case is
-significant in these prefixes.)  Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents
-@kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}.  (Note that @samp{\s} with no following @samp{-}
-represents the space character.)
-@tex
-Numerically, the bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}}
-for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper.
-@end tex
-@ifnottex
-Numerically, the
-bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper.
-@end ifnottex
-
-@node Symbol Type
-@subsection Symbol Type
-
-  A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name.  The
-symbol name serves as the printed representation of the symbol.  In
-ordinary Lisp use, with one single obarray (@pxref{Creating Symbols},
-a symbol's name is unique---no two symbols have the same name.
-
-  A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a
-property list.  Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp
-objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized
-reliably.  In a given context, usually only one of these uses is
-intended.  But you can use one symbol in all of these ways,
-independently.
-
-  A symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}) is called a
-@dfn{keyword symbol}.  These symbols automatically act as constants, and
-are normally used only by comparing an unknown symbol with a few
-specific alternatives.
-
-@cindex @samp{\} in symbols
-@cindex backslash in symbols
-  A symbol name can contain any characters whatever.  Most symbol names
-are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters
-@samp{-+=*/}.  Such names require no special punctuation; the characters
-of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number.
-(If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force
-interpretation as a symbol.)  The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}?} are
-less often used but also require no special punctuation.  Any other
-characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a
-backslash.  In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in
-the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the
-backslash.  For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab
-character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the
-letter @samp{t}.  To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you
-must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash).  But it's rare to
-do such a thing.
-
-@cindex CL note---case of letters
-@quotation
-@b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always
-``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped.  In Emacs
-Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct.
-@end quotation
-
-  Here are several examples of symbol names.  Note that the @samp{+} in
-the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number.
-This is not necessary in the fourth example because the rest of the name
-makes it invalid as a number.
-
-@example
-@group
-foo                 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.}
-FOO                 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.}
-char-to-string      ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.}
-@end group
-@group
-1+                  ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}}
-                    ;   @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).}
-@end group
-@group
-\+1                 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}}
-                    ;   @r{(not a very readable name).}
-@end group
-@group
-\(*\ 1\ 2\)         ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).}
-@c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the
-@c apparent misalignment of the comment.
-+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}  ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.}
-                    ;   @r{These characters need not be escaped.}
-@end group
-@end example
-
-@ifinfo
-@c This uses ``colon'' instead of a literal `:' because Info cannot
-@c cope with a `:' in a menu
-@cindex @samp{#@var{colon}} read syntax
-@end ifinfo
-@ifnotinfo
-@cindex @samp{#:} read syntax
-@end ifnotinfo
-  Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating
-Symbols}).  To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the
-name of the symbol.
-
-@node Sequence Type
-@subsection Sequence Types
-
-  A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of
-elements.  There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and
-arrays.  Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also
-considered a sequence.
-
-  Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and
-bool-vectors.  Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string
-elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t}
-or @code{nil}.  Char-tables are like vectors except that they are
-indexed by any valid character code.  The characters in a string can
-have text properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text
-Properties}), but vectors do not support text properties, even when
-their elements happen to be characters.
-
-  Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have
-important similarities.  For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all
-have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one.
-Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of
-sequence.  For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract
-an element of a sequence, given its index.  @xref{Sequences Arrays
-Vectors}.
-
-  It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since
-sequences are always created anew upon reading.  If you read the read
-syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents.
-There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the
-same object, @code{nil}.
-
-@node Cons Cell Type
-@subsection Cons Cell and List Types
-@cindex address field of register
-@cindex decrement field of register
-@cindex pointers
-
-  A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the
-@sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot.  Each slot can @dfn{hold} or
-@dfn{refer to} any Lisp object.  We also say that ``the @sc{car} of
-this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds,
-and likewise for the @sc{cdr}.
-
-@quotation
-A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between
-``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in
-Lisp are implicit.
-@end quotation
-
-  A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the
-@sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the
-empty list.  The empty list is actually the symbol @code{nil}.
-@xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists.  Because most cons
-cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list structure} has
-come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells.
-
-@cindex atoms
-  Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for
-``an object which is not a cons cell.''  These objects are called
-@dfn{atoms}.
-
-@cindex parenthesis
-@cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists
-  The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and
-consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a
-right parenthesis.  Here are examples of lists:
-
-@example
-(A 2 "A")            ; @r{A list of three elements.}
-()                   ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).}
-nil                  ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).}
-("A ()")             ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.}
-(A ())               ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.}
-(A nil)              ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.}
-((A B C))            ; @r{A list of one element}
-                     ;   @r{(which is a list of three elements).}
-@end example
-
-   Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element
-of the list.  That is, a cons cell is made for each element.  The
-@sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr}
-slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next
-element in the list.  The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to
-hold @code{nil}.
-
-  The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp.  The
-original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which
-divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the
-``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of
-the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract
-the contents of the decrement.  By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named
-for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named
-for its purpose, the construction of cells.
-
-@menu
-* Box Diagrams::                Drawing pictures of lists.
-* Dotted Pair Notation::        A general syntax for cons cells.
-* Association List Type::       A specially constructed list.
-@end menu
-
-@node Box Diagrams
-@subsubsection Drawing Lists as Box Diagrams
-@cindex box diagrams, for lists
-@cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists
-
-  A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are
-shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes.  (The Lisp reader cannot read
-such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be
-understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be
-understood only by humans.)  This picture represents the three-element
-list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}:
-
-@example
-@group
-    --- ---      --- ---      --- ---
-   |   |   |--> |   |   |--> |   |   |--> nil
-    --- ---      --- ---      --- ---
-     |            |            |
-     |            |            |
-      --> rose     --> violet   --> buttercup
-@end group
-@end example
-
-  In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to
-any Lisp object.  Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell.  Each arrow
-represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons
-cell.
-
-  In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first
-cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol).  The second
-box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next
-pair of boxes, the second cons cell.  The @sc{car} of the second cons
-cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell.  The
-@sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}.
-
-  Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet
-buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner:
-
-@smallexample
-@group
- ---------------       ----------------       -------------------
-| car   | cdr   |     | car    | cdr   |     | car       | cdr   |
-| rose  |   o-------->| violet |   o-------->| buttercup |  nil  |
-|       |       |     |        |       |     |           |       |
- ---------------       ----------------       -------------------
-@end group
-@end smallexample
-
-@cindex @code{nil} as a list
-@cindex empty list
-  A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical
-to the symbol @code{nil}.  In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol
-and a list.
-
-  Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)},
-depicted with boxes and arrows:
-
-@example
-@group
-    --- ---      --- ---
-   |   |   |--> |   |   |--> nil
-    --- ---      --- ---
-     |            |
-     |            |
-      --> A        --> nil
-@end group
-@end example
-
-  Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list,
-@code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a
-two-element list:
-
-@example
-@group
-    --- ---      --- ---      --- ---
-   |   |   |--> |   |   |--> |   |   |--> nil
-    --- ---      --- ---      --- ---
-     |            |            |
-     |            |            |
-     |             --> oak      --> maple
-     |
-     |     --- ---      --- ---
-      --> |   |   |--> |   |   |--> nil
-           --- ---      --- ---
-            |            |
-            |            |
-             --> pine     --> needles
-@end group
-@end example
-
-  The same list represented in the second box notation looks like this:
-
-@example
-@group
- --------------       --------------       --------------
-| car   | cdr  |     | car   | cdr  |     | car   | cdr  |
-|   o   |   o------->| oak   |   o------->| maple |  nil |
-|   |   |      |     |       |      |     |       |      |
- -- | ---------       --------------       --------------
-    |
-    |
-    |        --------------       ----------------
-    |       | car   | cdr  |     | car     | cdr  |
-     ------>| pine  |   o------->| needles |  nil |
-            |       |      |     |         |      |
-             --------------       ----------------
-@end group
-@end example
-
-@node Dotted Pair Notation
-@subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation
-@cindex dotted pair notation
-@cindex @samp{.} in lists
-
-  @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is a general syntax for cons cells that
-represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly.  In this syntax,
-@code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is
-the object @var{a} and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}.  Dotted
-pair notation is more general than list syntax because the @sc{cdr}
-does not have to be a list.  However, it is more cumbersome in cases
-where list syntax would work.  In dotted pair notation, the list
-@samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 .  (2 . (3 . nil)))}.  For
-@code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either notation, but list
-notation is usually clearer and more convenient.  When printing a
-list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cons
-cell is not a list.
-
-  Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation.
-This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}:
-
-@example
-@group
-    --- ---
-   |   |   |--> violet
-    --- ---
-     |
-     |
-      --> rose
-@end group
-@end example
-
-  You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent
-conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}.
-You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the
-@sc{cdr} of the final cons cell.  For example, @code{(rose violet
-. buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}.
-The object looks like this:
-
-@example
-@group
-    --- ---      --- ---
-   |   |   |--> |   |   |--> buttercup
-    --- ---      --- ---
-     |            |
-     |            |
-      --> rose     --> violet
-@end group
-@end example
-
-  The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because
-there is nothing that it could mean.  If anything, it would say to put
-@code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already
-used for @code{violet}.
-
-  The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))},
-and looks like this:
-
-@example
-@group
-    --- ---      --- ---
-   |   |   |--> |   |   |--> nil
-    --- ---      --- ---
-     |            |
-     |            |
-      --> rose     --> violet
-@end group
-@end example
-
-  Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}
-is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}.
-@ifnottex
-It looks like this:
-
-@example
-@group
-    --- ---      --- ---      --- ---
-   |   |   |--> |   |   |--> |   |   |--> nil
-    --- ---      --- ---      --- ---
-     |            |            |
-     |            |            |
-      --> rose     --> violet   --> buttercup
-@end group
-@end example
-@end ifnottex
-
-@node Association List Type
-@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
-@subsubsection Association List Type
-
-  An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed
-list whose elements are cons cells.  In each element, the @sc{car} is
-considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an
-@dfn{associated value}.  (In some cases, the associated value is stored
-in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.)  Association lists are often used as
-stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of
-the list.
-
-  For example,
-
-@example
-(setq alist-of-colors
-      '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow)))
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements.  In the
-first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value.
-
-  @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for
-functions that work on alists.  @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of
-lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys.
-
-@node Array Type
-@subsection Array Type
-
-  An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for
-holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of
-memory.  Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same
-amount of time.  In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires
-time proportional to the position of the element in the list.  (Elements
-at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the
-beginning of a list.)
-
-  Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and
-char-tables.
-
-  A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of
-arbitrary objects.  A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}.
-These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer.
-Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they
-can hold arbitrary objects.
-
-  The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has
-index 1, and so on.  This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing.  For
-example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}.  The
-largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array.
-Once an array is created, its length is fixed.
-
-  All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional.  (Most other programming
-languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential;
-you can get the same effect with nested one-dimensional arrays.)  Each
-type of array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for
-details.
-
-  The array type is a subset of the sequence type, and contains the
-string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the char-table
-type.
-
-@node String Type
-@subsection String Type
-
-  A @dfn{string} is an array of characters.  Strings are used for many
-purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as
-the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent
-text extracted from buffers.  Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation
-of a string returns the same string.
-
-  @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings.
-
-@menu
-* Syntax for Strings::
-* Non-ASCII in Strings::
-* Nonprinting Characters::
-* Text Props and Strings::
-@end menu
-
-@node Syntax for Strings
-@subsubsection Syntax for Strings
-
-@cindex @samp{"} in strings
-@cindex double-quote in strings
-@cindex @samp{\} in strings
-@cindex backslash in strings
-  The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of
-characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}.  To include a
-double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""}
-is a string containing just a single double-quote character.  Likewise,
-you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like
-this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}.
-
-@cindex newline in strings
-  The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings;
-if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a
-character in the string.  But an escaped newline---one that is preceded
-by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader
-ignores an escaped newline while reading a string.  An escaped space
-@w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored.
-
-@example
-"It is useful to include newlines
-in documentation strings,
-but the newline is \
-ignored if escaped."
-     @result{} "It is useful to include newlines
-in documentation strings,
-but the newline is ignored if escaped."
-@end example
-
-@node Non-ASCII in Strings
-@subsubsection Non-@acronym{ASCII} Characters in Strings
-
-  You can include a non-@acronym{ASCII} international character in a string
-constant by writing it literally.  There are two text representations
-for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte
-and multibyte.  If the string constant is read from a multibyte source,
-such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as
-multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that
-makes the string multibyte.  If the string constant is read from a
-unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the
-string unibyte.
-
-  You can also represent a multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its
-character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many
-digits as necessary.  (Multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character codes are all
-greater than 256.)  Any character which is not a valid hex digit
-terminates this construct.  If the next character in the string could be
-interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to
-terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents
-one character, @samp{a} with grave accent.  @w{@samp{\ }} in a string
-constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any
-character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape.
-
-  You can represent a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its
-character code, which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to
-255 (0377 octal).  If you write all such character codes in octal and
-the string contains no other characters forcing it to be multibyte,
-this produces a unibyte string.  However, using any hex escape in a
-string (even for an @acronym{ASCII} character) forces the string to be
-multibyte.
-
-  You can also specify characters in a string by their numeric values
-in Unicode, using @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} (@pxref{Character Type}).
-
-  @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two
-text representations.
-
-@node Nonprinting Characters
-@subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings
-
-  You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant
-as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a
-character constant).  For example, you can write a string containing the
-nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between
-them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}.  @xref{Character Type}, for a
-description of the read syntax for characters.
-
-  However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash
-escape-sequences are valid in strings.  The only control characters that
-a string can hold are the @acronym{ASCII} control characters.  Strings do not
-distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control characters.
-
-  Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a
-string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention
-that provides a way to represent meta versions of @acronym{ASCII}
-characters in a string.  If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate
-a meta character in a string constant, this sets the
-@tex
-@math{2^{7}}
-@end tex
-@ifnottex
-2**7
-@end ifnottex
-bit of the character in the string.  If the string is used in
-@code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated
-into the equivalent meta character.  @xref{Character Type}.
-
-  Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt
-modifiers.
-
-@node Text Props and Strings
-@subsubsection Text Properties in Strings
-
-  A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in
-addition to the characters themselves.  This enables programs that copy
-text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no
-special effort.  @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text
-properties mean.  Strings with text properties use a special read and
-print syntax:
-
-@example
-#("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...)
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups
-of three as follows:
-
-@example
-@var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist}
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify
-a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for
-that range.  For example,
-
-@example
-#("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic))
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which
-the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value
-@code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value
-@code{italic}.  (The fourth character has no text properties, so its
-property list is @code{nil}.  It is not actually necessary to mention
-ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not
-mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.)
-
-@node Vector Type
-@subsection Vector Type
-
-  A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type.  It
-takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector.  (In
-a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of
-the element from the beginning of the list.)
-
-  The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square
-bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket.  This is also the
-read syntax.  Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants
-for evaluation.
-
-@example
-[1 "two" (three)]      ; @r{A vector of three elements.}
-     @result{} [1 "two" (three)]
-@end example
-
-  @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors.
-
-@node Char-Table Type
-@subsection Char-Table Type
-
-  A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type,
-indexed by character codes.  Char-tables have certain extra features to
-make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information
-to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to
-inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for
-special purposes.  A char-table can also specify a single value for
-a whole character set.
-
-  The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector
-except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning.
-
-  @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables.
-Uses of char-tables include:
-
-@itemize @bullet
-@item
-Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}).
-
-@item
-Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}).
-
-@item
-Display tables (@pxref{Display Tables}).
-
-@item
-Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}).
-@end itemize
-
-@node Bool-Vector Type
-@subsection Bool-Vector Type
-
-  A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that
-must be @code{t} or @code{nil}.
-
-  The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except
-that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length.  The string
-constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector
-as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which
-specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t},
-and 0 for @code{nil}).  The least significant bits of the character
-correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector.
-
-@example
-(make-bool-vector 3 t)
-     @result{} #&3"^G"
-(make-bool-vector 3 nil)
-     @result{} #&3"^@@"
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-These results make sense, because the binary code for @samp{C-g} is
-111 and @samp{C-@@} is the character with code 0.
-
-  If the length is not a multiple of 8, the printed representation
-shows extra elements, but these extras really make no difference.  For
-instance, in the next example, the two bool-vectors are equal, because
-only the first 3 bits are used:
-
-@example
-(equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007")
-     @result{} t
-@end example
-
-@node Hash Table Type
-@subsection Hash Table Type
-
-    A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an
-alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster.
-Hash tables have no read syntax, and print using hash notation.
-@xref{Hash Tables}, for functions that operate on hash tables.
-
-@example
-(make-hash-table)
-     @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980>
-@end example
-
-@node Function Type
-@subsection Function Type
-
-  Lisp functions are executable code, just like functions in other
-programming languages.  In Lisp, unlike most languages, functions are
-also Lisp objects.  A non-compiled function in Lisp is a lambda
-expression: that is, a list whose first element is the symbol
-@code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}).
-
-  In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function
-without a name.  In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name.  A lambda
-expression can be called as a function even though it has no name; to
-emphasize this, we also call it an @dfn{anonymous function}
-(@pxref{Anonymous Functions}).  A named function in Lisp is just a
-symbol with a valid function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining
-Functions}).
-
-  Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in
-Lisp expressions in Lisp programs.  However, you can construct or obtain
-a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive
-functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}.  @xref{Calling Functions}.
-
-@node Macro Type
-@subsection Macro Type
-
-  A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp
-language.  It is represented as an object much like a function, but with
-different argument-passing semantics.  A Lisp macro has the form of a
-list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr}
-is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol.
-
-  Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in
-@code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is
-a macro as far as Emacs is concerned.  @xref{Macros}, for an explanation
-of how to write a macro.
-
-  @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard
-Macros}) are entirely different things.  When we use the word ``macro''
-without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro.
-
-@node Primitive Function Type
-@subsection Primitive Function Type
-@cindex special forms
-
-  A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but
-written in the C programming language.  Primitive functions are also
-called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}.  (The word ``subr'' is
-derived from ``subroutine.'')  Most primitive functions evaluate all
-their arguments when they are called.  A primitive function that does
-not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form}
-(@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill
-
-  It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is
-primitive.  However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive
-with a function written in Lisp.  The reason is that the primitive
-function may be called directly from C code.  Calls to the redefined
-function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code
-may still use the built-in definition.  Therefore, @strong{we discourage
-redefinition of primitive functions}.
-
-  The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written
-in Lisp or C.  @xref{Function Type}, for information about the
-functions written in Lisp.
-
-  Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation
-with the name of the subroutine.
-
-@example
-@group
-(symbol-function 'car)          ; @r{Access the function cell}
-                                ;   @r{of the symbol.}
-     @result{} #<subr car>
-(subrp (symbol-function 'car))  ; @r{Is this a primitive function?}
-     @result{} t                       ; @r{Yes.}
-@end group
-@end example
-
-@node Byte-Code Type
-@subsection Byte-Code Function Type
-
-The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}.
-Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however,
-the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a
-function to be called.  @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about
-the byte compiler.
-
-The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function
-object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the
-opening @samp{[}.
-
-@node Autoload Type
-@subsection Autoload Type
-
-  An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol
-@code{autoload}.  It is stored as the function definition of a symbol,
-where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition.  The autoload
-object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code
-that should be loaded when necessary.  It contains the name of the file,
-plus some other information about the real definition.
-
-  After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function
-definition that is not an autoload object.  The new definition is then
-called as if it had been there to begin with.  From the user's point of
-view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition
-in the loaded file.
-
-  An autoload object is usually created with the function
-@code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a
-symbol.  @xref{Autoload}, for more details.
-
-@node Editing Types
-@section Editing Types
-@cindex editing types
-
-  The types in the previous section are used for general programming
-purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects.  Emacs Lisp
-provides several additional data types for purposes connected with
-editing.
-
-@menu
-* Buffer Type::         The basic object of editing.
-* Marker Type::         A position in a buffer.
-* Window Type::         Buffers are displayed in windows.
-* Frame Type::		Windows subdivide frames.
-* Window Configuration Type::   Recording the way a frame is subdivided.
-* Frame Configuration Type::    Recording the status of all frames.
-* Process Type::        A process running on the underlying OS.
-* Stream Type::         Receive or send characters.
-* Keymap Type::         What function a keystroke invokes.
-* Overlay Type::        How an overlay is represented.
-@end menu
-
-@node Buffer Type
-@subsection Buffer Type
-
-  A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited
-(@pxref{Buffers}).  Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file
-(@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other
-purposes.  Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and
-therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}).  But a
-buffer need not be displayed in any window.
-
-  The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not
-used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are
-different.  For example, you can insert text efficiently into an
-existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting''
-text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result is
-an entirely new string object.
-
-  Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point}
-(@pxref{Positions}).  At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current
-buffer}.  Most editing commands act on the contents of the current
-buffer in the neighborhood of point.  Many of the standard Emacs
-functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a
-whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions
-(@pxref{Text}).
-
-  Several other data structures are associated with each buffer:
-
-@itemize @bullet
-@item
-a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables});
-
-@item
-a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and,
-
-@item
-a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}).
-
-@item
-overlays (@pxref{Overlays}).
-
-@item
-text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}).
-@end itemize
-
-@noindent
-The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually
-override global bindings or values.  These are used to customize the
-behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the
-programs.
-
-  A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text
-of another buffer, but presents it differently.  @xref{Indirect Buffers}.
-
-  Buffers have no read syntax.  They print in hash notation, showing the
-buffer name.
-
-@example
-@group
-(current-buffer)
-     @result{} #<buffer objects.texi>
-@end group
-@end example
-
-@node Marker Type
-@subsection Marker Type
-
-  A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer.  Markers
-therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the
-position.  Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the
-position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points
-between the same two characters in the buffer.
-
-  Markers have no read syntax.  They print in hash notation, giving the
-current character position and the name of the buffer.
-
-@example
-@group
-(point-marker)
-     @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi>
-@end group
-@end example
-
-@xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move
-markers.
-
-@node Window Type
-@subsection Window Type
-
-  A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs
-uses to display a buffer.  Every window has one associated buffer, whose
-contents appear in the window.  By contrast, a given buffer may appear
-in one window, no window, or several windows.
-
-  Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window
-is designated the @dfn{selected window}.  This is the window where the
-cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command.  The
-selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not
-necessarily the case.
-
-  Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to
-one and only one frame.  @xref{Frame Type}.
-
-  Windows have no read syntax.  They print in hash notation, giving the
-window number and the name of the buffer being displayed.  The window
-numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed
-in any given window can change frequently.
-
-@example
-@group
-(selected-window)
-     @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi>
-@end group
-@end example
-
-  @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows.
-
-@node Frame Type
-@subsection Frame Type
-
-  A @dfn{frame} is a screen area that contains one or more Emacs
-windows; we also use the term ``frame'' to refer to the Lisp object
-that Emacs uses to refer to the screen area.
-
-  Frames have no read syntax.  They print in hash notation, giving the
-frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame
-uniquely).
-
-@example
-@group
-(selected-frame)
-     @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80>
-@end group
-@end example
-
-  @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames.
-
-@node Window Configuration Type
-@subsection Window Configuration Type
-@cindex window layout in a frame
-
-  A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions,
-sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the
-same arrangement of windows later.
-
-  Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax
-looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}.  @xref{Window
-Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to
-window configurations.
-
-@node Frame Configuration Type
-@subsection Frame Configuration Type
-@cindex screen layout
-@cindex window layout, all frames
-
-  A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions,
-sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames.  It is actually
-a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose
-@sc{cdr} is an alist.  Each alist element describes one frame,
-which appears as the @sc{car} of that element.
-
-  @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions
-related to frame configurations.
-
-@node Process Type
-@subsection Process Type
-
-  The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program.  Emacs itself
-runs in a process of this sort.  However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a
-Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process.
-Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in
-subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs.
-
-  An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual
-output to Emacs for further manipulation.  Emacs can also send signals
-to the subprocess.
-
-  Process objects have no read syntax.  They print in hash notation,
-giving the name of the process:
-
-@example
-@group
-(process-list)
-     @result{} (#<process shell>)
-@end group
-@end example
-
-@xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete,
-return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output
-from processes.
-
-@node Stream Type
-@subsection Stream Type
-
-  A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for
-characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as
-output.  Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers,
-strings, and functions.  Most often, input streams (character sources)
-obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output
-streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a
-@file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area.
-
-  The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used
-as a stream.  It stands for the value of the variable
-@code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}.  Also, the object
-@code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer
-(@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo
-Area}).
-
-  Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and
-print as whatever primitive type they are.
-
-  @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions
-related to streams, including parsing and printing functions.
-
-@node Keymap Type
-@subsection Keymap Type
-
-  A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands.  This mapping
-controls how the user's command input is executed.  A keymap is actually
-a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}.
-
-  @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix
-keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings.
-
-@node Overlay Type
-@subsection Overlay Type
-
-  An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a
-buffer.  Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and
-contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property
-names and values).  Overlay properties are used to present parts of the
-buffer temporarily in a different display style.  Overlays have no read
-syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of
-positions.
-
-  @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays.
-
-@node Circular Objects
-@section Read Syntax for Circular Objects
-@cindex circular structure, read syntax
-@cindex shared structure, read syntax
-@cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax
-@cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax
-
-  To represent shared or circular structures within a complex of Lisp
-objects, you can use the reader constructs @samp{#@var{n}=} and
-@samp{#@var{n}#}.
-
-  Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference;
-subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in
-another place.  Here, @var{n} is some integer.  For example, here is how
-to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element:
-
-@example
-(#1=(a) b #1#)
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-This differs from ordinary syntax such as this
-
-@example
-((a) b (a))
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-which would result in a list whose first and third elements
-look alike but are not the same Lisp object.  This shows the difference:
-
-@example
-(prog1 nil
-  (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#)))
-(eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x))
-     @result{} t
-(setq x '((a) b (a)))
-(eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x))
-     @result{} nil
-@end example
-
-  You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which
-appears as an ``element'' within itself.  Here is an example:
-
-@example
-#1=(a #1#)
-@end example
-
-@noindent
-This makes a list whose second element is the list itself.
-Here's how you can see that it really works:
-
-@example
-(prog1 nil
-  (setq x '#1=(a #1#)))
-(eq x (cadr x))
-     @result{} t
-@end example
-
-  The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared
-structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle}
-to a non-@code{nil} value.  @xref{Output Variables}.
-
-@node Type Predicates
-@section Type Predicates
-@cindex type checking
-@kindex wrong-type-argument
-
-  The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on
-the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called.  It could
-not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data
-types, as they do in other programming languages.  It is therefore up to
-the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to
-a type that the function can use.
-
-  All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments
-when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an
-argument is of the wrong type.  For example, here is what happens if you
-pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle:
-
-@example
-@group
-(+ 2 'a)
-     @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a
-@end group
-@end example
-
-@cindex type predicates
-@cindex testing types
-  If you want your program to handle different types differently, you
-must do explicit type checking.  The most common way to check the type
-of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function.  Emacs has a
-type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for
-combinations of types.
-
-  A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if
-the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise.
-Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type
-predicates' names end with @samp{p}.
-
-  Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for
-a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol.
-
-@example
-(defun add-on (x)
-  (cond ((symbolp x)
-         ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST.
-         (setq list (cons x list)))
-        ((listp x)
-         ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST.
-         (setq list (append x list)))
-        (t
-         ;; We handle only symbols and lists.
-         (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x))))
-@end example
-
-  Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order,
-with references to further information.
-
-@table @code
-@item atom
-@xref{List-related Predicates, atom}.
-
-@item arrayp
-@xref{Array Functions, arrayp}.
-
-@item bool-vector-p
-@xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}.
-
-@item bufferp
-@xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}.
-
-@item byte-code-function-p
-@xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}.
-
-@item case-table-p
-@xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}.
-
-@item char-or-string-p
-@xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}.
-
-@item char-table-p
-@xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}.
-
-@item commandp
-@xref{Interactive Call, commandp}.
-
-@item consp
-@xref{List-related Predicates, consp}.
-
-@item display-table-p
-@xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}.
-
-@item floatp
-@xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}.
-
-@item frame-configuration-p
-@xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}.
-
-@item frame-live-p
-@xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}.
-
-@item framep
-@xref{Frames, framep}.
-
-@item functionp
-@xref{Functions, functionp}.
-
-@item hash-table-p
-@xref{Other Hash, hash-table-p}.
-
-@item integer-or-marker-p
-@xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}.
-
-@item integerp
-@xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}.
-
-@item keymapp
-@xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}.
-
-@item keywordp
-@xref{Constant Variables}.
-
-@item listp
-@xref{List-related Predicates, listp}.
-
-@item markerp
-@xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}.
-
-@item wholenump
-@xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}.
-
-@item nlistp
-@xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}.
-
-@item numberp
-@xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}.
-
-@item number-or-marker-p
-@xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}.
-
-@item overlayp
-@xref{Overlays, overlayp}.
-
-@item processp
-@xref{Processes, processp}.
-
-@item sequencep
-@xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}.
-
-@item stringp
-@xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}.
-
-@item subrp
-@xref{Function Cells, subrp}.
-
-@item symbolp
-@xref{Symbols, symbolp}.
-
-@item syntax-table-p
-@xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}.
-
-@item user-variable-p
-@xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}.
-
-@item vectorp
-@xref{Vectors, vectorp}.
-
-@item window-configuration-p
-@xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}.
-
-@item window-live-p
-@xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}.
-
-@item windowp
-@xref{Basic Windows, windowp}.
-
-@item booleanp
-@xref{nil and t, booleanp}.
-
-@item string-or-null-p
-@xref{Predicates for Strings, string-or-null-p}.
-@end table
-
-  The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the
-function @code{type-of}.  Recall that each object belongs to one and
-only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp
-Data Types}).  But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive
-types.  In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than
-@code{type-of}.
-
-@defun type-of object
-This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of
-@var{object}.  The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol},
-@code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector},
-@code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{hash-table}, @code{subr},
-@code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window},
-@code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or
-@code{window-configuration}.
-
-@example
-(type-of 1)
-     @result{} integer
-@group
-(type-of 'nil)
-     @result{} symbol
-(type-of '())    ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.}
-     @result{} symbol
-(type-of '(x))
-     @result{} cons
-@end group
-@end example
-@end defun
-
-@node Equality Predicates
-@section Equality Predicates
-@cindex equality
-
-  Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two
-objects.  Other functions test equality between objects of specific
-types, e.g., strings.  For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter
-describing the data type.
-
-@defun eq object1 object2
-This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are
-the same object, @code{nil} otherwise.
-
-@code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are
-integers with the same value.  Also, since symbol names are normally
-unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are
-@code{eq}.  For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two
-arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily
-@code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same
-object, meaning that a change in the contents of one will be reflected
-by the same change in the contents of the other.
-
-@example
-@group
-(eq 'foo 'foo)
-     @result{} t
-@end group
-
-@group
-(eq 456 456)
-     @result{} t
-@end group
-
-@group
-(eq "asdf" "asdf")
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-
-@group
-(eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-
-@group
-(setq foo '(1 (2 (3))))
-     @result{} (1 (2 (3)))
-(eq foo foo)
-     @result{} t
-(eq foo '(1 (2 (3))))
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-
-@group
-(eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-
-@group
-(eq (point-marker) (point-marker))
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-@end example
-
-The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct
-from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression.
-Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}.  @xref{Creating
-Symbols}.
-
-@example
-@group
-(eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo)
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-@end example
-@end defun
-
-@defun equal object1 object2
-This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have
-equal components, @code{nil} otherwise.  Whereas @code{eq} tests if its
-arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical
-arguments to see if their elements or contents are the same.  So, if two
-objects are @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not
-always true.
-
-@example
-@group
-(equal 'foo 'foo)
-     @result{} t
-@end group
-
-@group
-(equal 456 456)
-     @result{} t
-@end group
-
-@group
-(equal "asdf" "asdf")
-     @result{} t
-@end group
-@group
-(eq "asdf" "asdf")
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-
-@group
-(equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
-     @result{} t
-@end group
-@group
-(eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3))))
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-
-@group
-(equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
-     @result{} t
-@end group
-@group
-(eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3])
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-
-@group
-(equal (point-marker) (point-marker))
-     @result{} t
-@end group
-
-@group
-(eq (point-marker) (point-marker))
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-@end example
-
-Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of
-text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings.  For
-technical reasons, a unibyte string and a multibyte string are
-@code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of
-character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through
-127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}).
-(@pxref{Text Representations}).
-
-@example
-@group
-(equal "asdf" "ASDF")
-     @result{} nil
-@end group
-@end example
-
-However, two distinct buffers are never considered @code{equal}, even if
-their textual contents are the same.
-@end defun
-
-  The test for equality is implemented recursively; for example, given
-two cons cells @var{x} and @var{y}, @code{(equal @var{x} @var{y})}
-returns @code{t} if and only if both the expressions below return
-@code{t}:
-
-@example
-(equal (car @var{x}) (car @var{y}))
-(equal (cdr @var{x}) (cdr @var{y}))
-@end example
-
-Because of this recursive method, circular lists may therefore cause
-infinite recursion (leading to an error).
-
-@ignore
-   arch-tag: 9711a66e-4749-4265-9e8c-972d55b67096
-@end ignore