Mercurial > emacs
changeset 84027:987b98ccc847
Move to ../doc/lispref
| author | Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org> |
|---|---|
| date | Thu, 06 Sep 2007 04:14:25 +0000 |
| parents | 93f0e57ed710 |
| children | 6f0e856b9948 |
| files | lispref/strings.texi |
| diffstat | 1 files changed, 0 insertions(+), 1163 deletions(-) [+] |
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--- a/lispref/strings.texi Thu Sep 06 04:14:19 2007 +0000 +++ /dev/null Thu Jan 01 00:00:00 1970 +0000 @@ -1,1163 +0,0 @@ -@c -*-texinfo-*- -@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. -@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, -@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. -@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. -@setfilename ../info/strings -@node Strings and Characters, Lists, Numbers, Top -@comment node-name, next, previous, up -@chapter Strings and Characters -@cindex strings -@cindex character arrays -@cindex characters -@cindex bytes - - A string in Emacs Lisp is an array that contains an ordered sequence -of characters. Strings are used as names of symbols, buffers, and -files; to send messages to users; to hold text being copied between -buffers; and for many other purposes. Because strings are so important, -Emacs Lisp has many functions expressly for manipulating them. Emacs -Lisp programs use strings more often than individual characters. - - @xref{Strings of Events}, for special considerations for strings of -keyboard character events. - -@menu -* Basics: String Basics. Basic properties of strings and characters. -* Predicates for Strings:: Testing whether an object is a string or char. -* Creating Strings:: Functions to allocate new strings. -* Modifying Strings:: Altering the contents of an existing string. -* Text Comparison:: Comparing characters or strings. -* String Conversion:: Converting to and from characters and strings. -* Formatting Strings:: @code{format}: Emacs's analogue of @code{printf}. -* Case Conversion:: Case conversion functions. -* Case Tables:: Customizing case conversion. -@end menu - -@node String Basics -@section String and Character Basics - - Characters are represented in Emacs Lisp as integers; -whether an integer is a character or not is determined only by how it is -used. Thus, strings really contain integers. - - The length of a string (like any array) is fixed, and cannot be -altered once the string exists. Strings in Lisp are @emph{not} -terminated by a distinguished character code. (By contrast, strings in -C are terminated by a character with @acronym{ASCII} code 0.) - - Since strings are arrays, and therefore sequences as well, you can -operate on them with the general array and sequence functions. -(@xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.) For example, you can access or -change individual characters in a string using the functions @code{aref} -and @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). - - There are two text representations for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in -Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte and multibyte (@pxref{Text -Representations}). An @acronym{ASCII} character always occupies one byte in a -string; in fact, when a string is all @acronym{ASCII}, there is no real -difference between the unibyte and multibyte representations. -For most Lisp programming, you don't need to be concerned with these two -representations. - - Sometimes key sequences are represented as strings. When a string is -a key sequence, string elements in the range 128 to 255 represent meta -characters (which are large integers) rather than character -codes in the range 128 to 255. - - Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super or alt -modifiers; they can hold @acronym{ASCII} control characters, but no other -control characters. They do not distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control -characters. If you want to store such characters in a sequence, such as -a key sequence, you must use a vector instead of a string. -@xref{Character Type}, for more information about the representation of meta -and other modifiers for keyboard input characters. - - Strings are useful for holding regular expressions. You can also -match regular expressions against strings with @code{string-match} -(@pxref{Regexp Search}). The functions @code{match-string} -(@pxref{Simple Match Data}) and @code{replace-match} (@pxref{Replacing -Match}) are useful for decomposing and modifying strings after -matching regular expressions against them. - - Like a buffer, a string can contain text properties for the characters -in it, as well as the characters themselves. @xref{Text Properties}. -All the Lisp primitives that copy text from strings to buffers or other -strings also copy the properties of the characters being copied. - - @xref{Text}, for information about functions that display strings or -copy them into buffers. @xref{Character Type}, and @ref{String Type}, -for information about the syntax of characters and strings. -@xref{Non-ASCII Characters}, for functions to convert between text -representations and to encode and decode character codes. - -@node Predicates for Strings -@section The Predicates for Strings - -For more information about general sequence and array predicates, -see @ref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}, and @ref{Arrays}. - -@defun stringp object -This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string, @code{nil} -otherwise. -@end defun - -@defun string-or-null-p object -This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or nil, -@code{nil} otherwise. -@end defun - -@defun char-or-string-p object -This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or a -character (i.e., an integer), @code{nil} otherwise. -@end defun - -@node Creating Strings -@section Creating Strings - - The following functions create strings, either from scratch, or by -putting strings together, or by taking them apart. - -@defun make-string count character -This function returns a string made up of @var{count} repetitions of -@var{character}. If @var{count} is negative, an error is signaled. - -@example -(make-string 5 ?x) - @result{} "xxxxx" -(make-string 0 ?x) - @result{} "" -@end example - - Other functions to compare with this one include @code{char-to-string} -(@pxref{String Conversion}), @code{make-vector} (@pxref{Vectors}), and -@code{make-list} (@pxref{Building Lists}). -@end defun - -@defun string &rest characters -This returns a string containing the characters @var{characters}. - -@example -(string ?a ?b ?c) - @result{} "abc" -@end example -@end defun - -@defun substring string start &optional end -This function returns a new string which consists of those characters -from @var{string} in the range from (and including) the character at the -index @var{start} up to (but excluding) the character at the index -@var{end}. The first character is at index zero. - -@example -@group -(substring "abcdefg" 0 3) - @result{} "abc" -@end group -@end example - -@noindent -Here the index for @samp{a} is 0, the index for @samp{b} is 1, and the -index for @samp{c} is 2. Thus, three letters, @samp{abc}, are copied -from the string @code{"abcdefg"}. The index 3 marks the character -position up to which the substring is copied. The character whose index -is 3 is actually the fourth character in the string. - -A negative number counts from the end of the string, so that @minus{}1 -signifies the index of the last character of the string. For example: - -@example -@group -(substring "abcdefg" -3 -1) - @result{} "ef" -@end group -@end example - -@noindent -In this example, the index for @samp{e} is @minus{}3, the index for -@samp{f} is @minus{}2, and the index for @samp{g} is @minus{}1. -Therefore, @samp{e} and @samp{f} are included, and @samp{g} is excluded. - -When @code{nil} is used for @var{end}, it stands for the length of the -string. Thus, - -@example -@group -(substring "abcdefg" -3 nil) - @result{} "efg" -@end group -@end example - -Omitting the argument @var{end} is equivalent to specifying @code{nil}. -It follows that @code{(substring @var{string} 0)} returns a copy of all -of @var{string}. - -@example -@group -(substring "abcdefg" 0) - @result{} "abcdefg" -@end group -@end example - -@noindent -But we recommend @code{copy-sequence} for this purpose (@pxref{Sequence -Functions}). - -If the characters copied from @var{string} have text properties, the -properties are copied into the new string also. @xref{Text Properties}. - -@code{substring} also accepts a vector for the first argument. -For example: - -@example -(substring [a b (c) "d"] 1 3) - @result{} [b (c)] -@end example - -A @code{wrong-type-argument} error is signaled if @var{start} is not -an integer or if @var{end} is neither an integer nor @code{nil}. An -@code{args-out-of-range} error is signaled if @var{start} indicates a -character following @var{end}, or if either integer is out of range -for @var{string}. - -Contrast this function with @code{buffer-substring} (@pxref{Buffer -Contents}), which returns a string containing a portion of the text in -the current buffer. The beginning of a string is at index 0, but the -beginning of a buffer is at index 1. -@end defun - -@defun substring-no-properties string &optional start end -This works like @code{substring} but discards all text properties from -the value. Also, @var{start} may be omitted or @code{nil}, which is -equivalent to 0. Thus, @w{@code{(substring-no-properties -@var{string})}} returns a copy of @var{string}, with all text -properties removed. -@end defun - -@defun concat &rest sequences -@cindex copying strings -@cindex concatenating strings -This function returns a new string consisting of the characters in the -arguments passed to it (along with their text properties, if any). The -arguments may be strings, lists of numbers, or vectors of numbers; they -are not themselves changed. If @code{concat} receives no arguments, it -returns an empty string. - -@example -(concat "abc" "-def") - @result{} "abc-def" -(concat "abc" (list 120 121) [122]) - @result{} "abcxyz" -;; @r{@code{nil} is an empty sequence.} -(concat "abc" nil "-def") - @result{} "abc-def" -(concat "The " "quick brown " "fox.") - @result{} "The quick brown fox." -(concat) - @result{} "" -@end example - -@noindent -The @code{concat} function always constructs a new string that is -not @code{eq} to any existing string. - -In Emacs versions before 21, when an argument was an integer (not a -sequence of integers), it was converted to a string of digits making up -the decimal printed representation of the integer. This obsolete usage -no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to its decimal -printed form is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) or -@code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). - -For information about other concatenation functions, see the -description of @code{mapconcat} in @ref{Mapping Functions}, -@code{vconcat} in @ref{Vector Functions}, and @code{append} in @ref{Building -Lists}. -@end defun - -@defun split-string string &optional separators omit-nulls -This function splits @var{string} into substrings at matches for the -regular expression @var{separators}. Each match for @var{separators} -defines a splitting point; the substrings between the splitting points -are made into a list, which is the value returned by -@code{split-string}. - -If @var{omit-nulls} is @code{nil}, the result contains null strings -whenever there are two consecutive matches for @var{separators}, or a -match is adjacent to the beginning or end of @var{string}. If -@var{omit-nulls} is @code{t}, these null strings are omitted from the -result. - -If @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), -the default is the value of @code{split-string-default-separators}. - -As a special case, when @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), -null strings are always omitted from the result. Thus: - -@example -(split-string " two words ") - @result{} ("two" "words") -@end example - -The result is not @code{("" "two" "words" "")}, which would rarely be -useful. If you need such a result, use an explicit value for -@var{separators}: - -@example -(split-string " two words " - split-string-default-separators) - @result{} ("" "two" "words" "") -@end example - -More examples: - -@example -(split-string "Soup is good food" "o") - @result{} ("S" "up is g" "" "d f" "" "d") -(split-string "Soup is good food" "o" t) - @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") -(split-string "Soup is good food" "o+") - @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") -@end example - -Empty matches do count, except that @code{split-string} will not look -for a final empty match when it already reached the end of the string -using a non-empty match or when @var{string} is empty: - -@example -(split-string "aooob" "o*") - @result{} ("" "a" "" "b" "") -(split-string "ooaboo" "o*") - @result{} ("" "" "a" "b" "") -(split-string "" "") - @result{} ("") -@end example - -However, when @var{separators} can match the empty string, -@var{omit-nulls} is usually @code{t}, so that the subtleties in the -three previous examples are rarely relevant: - -@example -(split-string "Soup is good food" "o*" t) - @result{} ("S" "u" "p" " " "i" "s" " " "g" "d" " " "f" "d") -(split-string "Nice doggy!" "" t) - @result{} ("N" "i" "c" "e" " " "d" "o" "g" "g" "y" "!") -(split-string "" "" t) - @result{} nil -@end example - -Somewhat odd, but predictable, behavior can occur for certain -``non-greedy'' values of @var{separators} that can prefer empty -matches over non-empty matches. Again, such values rarely occur in -practice: - -@example -(split-string "ooo" "o*" t) - @result{} nil -(split-string "ooo" "\\|o+" t) - @result{} ("o" "o" "o") -@end example -@end defun - -@defvar split-string-default-separators -The default value of @var{separators} for @code{split-string}. Its -usual value is @w{@code{"[ \f\t\n\r\v]+"}}. -@end defvar - -@node Modifying Strings -@section Modifying Strings - - The most basic way to alter the contents of an existing string is with -@code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). @code{(aset @var{string} -@var{idx} @var{char})} stores @var{char} into @var{string} at index -@var{idx}. Each character occupies one or more bytes, and if @var{char} -needs a different number of bytes from the character already present at -that index, @code{aset} signals an error. - - A more powerful function is @code{store-substring}: - -@defun store-substring string idx obj -This function alters part of the contents of the string @var{string}, by -storing @var{obj} starting at index @var{idx}. The argument @var{obj} -may be either a character or a (smaller) string. - -Since it is impossible to change the length of an existing string, it is -an error if @var{obj} doesn't fit within @var{string}'s actual length, -or if any new character requires a different number of bytes from the -character currently present at that point in @var{string}. -@end defun - - To clear out a string that contained a password, use -@code{clear-string}: - -@defun clear-string string -This makes @var{string} a unibyte string and clears its contents to -zeros. It may also change @var{string}'s length. -@end defun - -@need 2000 -@node Text Comparison -@section Comparison of Characters and Strings -@cindex string equality - -@defun char-equal character1 character2 -This function returns @code{t} if the arguments represent the same -character, @code{nil} otherwise. This function ignores differences -in case if @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}. - -@example -(char-equal ?x ?x) - @result{} t -(let ((case-fold-search nil)) - (char-equal ?x ?X)) - @result{} nil -@end example -@end defun - -@defun string= string1 string2 -This function returns @code{t} if the characters of the two strings -match exactly. Symbols are also allowed as arguments, in which case -their print names are used. -Case is always significant, regardless of @code{case-fold-search}. - -@example -(string= "abc" "abc") - @result{} t -(string= "abc" "ABC") - @result{} nil -(string= "ab" "ABC") - @result{} nil -@end example - -The function @code{string=} ignores the text properties of the two -strings. When @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}) compares two -strings, it uses @code{string=}. - -For technical reasons, a unibyte and a multibyte string are -@code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of -character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through -127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). -However, when a unibyte string gets converted to a multibyte string, -all characters with codes in the range 160 through 255 get converted -to characters with higher codes, whereas @acronym{ASCII} characters -remain unchanged. Thus, a unibyte string and its conversion to -multibyte are only @code{equal} if the string is all @acronym{ASCII}. -Character codes 160 through 255 are not entirely proper in multibyte -text, even though they can occur. As a consequence, the situation -where a unibyte and a multibyte string are @code{equal} without both -being all @acronym{ASCII} is a technical oddity that very few Emacs -Lisp programmers ever get confronted with. @xref{Text -Representations}. -@end defun - -@defun string-equal string1 string2 -@code{string-equal} is another name for @code{string=}. -@end defun - -@cindex lexical comparison -@defun string< string1 string2 -@c (findex string< causes problems for permuted index!!) -This function compares two strings a character at a time. It -scans both the strings at the same time to find the first pair of corresponding -characters that do not match. If the lesser character of these two is -the character from @var{string1}, then @var{string1} is less, and this -function returns @code{t}. If the lesser character is the one from -@var{string2}, then @var{string1} is greater, and this function returns -@code{nil}. If the two strings match entirely, the value is @code{nil}. - -Pairs of characters are compared according to their character codes. -Keep in mind that lower case letters have higher numeric values in the -@acronym{ASCII} character set than their upper case counterparts; digits and -many punctuation characters have a lower numeric value than upper case -letters. An @acronym{ASCII} character is less than any non-@acronym{ASCII} -character; a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character is always less than any -multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character (@pxref{Text Representations}). - -@example -@group -(string< "abc" "abd") - @result{} t -(string< "abd" "abc") - @result{} nil -(string< "123" "abc") - @result{} t -@end group -@end example - -When the strings have different lengths, and they match up to the -length of @var{string1}, then the result is @code{t}. If they match up -to the length of @var{string2}, the result is @code{nil}. A string of -no characters is less than any other string. - -@example -@group -(string< "" "abc") - @result{} t -(string< "ab" "abc") - @result{} t -(string< "abc" "") - @result{} nil -(string< "abc" "ab") - @result{} nil -(string< "" "") - @result{} nil -@end group -@end example - -Symbols are also allowed as arguments, in which case their print names -are used. -@end defun - -@defun string-lessp string1 string2 -@code{string-lessp} is another name for @code{string<}. -@end defun - -@defun compare-strings string1 start1 end1 string2 start2 end2 &optional ignore-case -This function compares the specified part of @var{string1} with the -specified part of @var{string2}. The specified part of @var{string1} -runs from index @var{start1} up to index @var{end1} (@code{nil} means -the end of the string). The specified part of @var{string2} runs from -index @var{start2} up to index @var{end2} (@code{nil} means the end of -the string). - -The strings are both converted to multibyte for the comparison -(@pxref{Text Representations}) so that a unibyte string and its -conversion to multibyte are always regarded as equal. If -@var{ignore-case} is non-@code{nil}, then case is ignored, so that -upper case letters can be equal to lower case letters. - -If the specified portions of the two strings match, the value is -@code{t}. Otherwise, the value is an integer which indicates how many -leading characters agree, and which string is less. Its absolute value -is one plus the number of characters that agree at the beginning of the -two strings. The sign is negative if @var{string1} (or its specified -portion) is less. -@end defun - -@defun assoc-string key alist &optional case-fold -This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a -string or symbol, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}. -Symbols are converted to strings before testing. -If @var{case-fold} is non-@code{nil}, it ignores case differences. -Unlike @code{assoc}, this function can also match elements of the alist -that are strings or symbols rather than conses. In particular, @var{alist} can -be a list of strings or symbols rather than an actual alist. -@xref{Association Lists}. -@end defun - - See also the @code{compare-buffer-substrings} function in -@ref{Comparing Text}, for a way to compare text in buffers. The -function @code{string-match}, which matches a regular expression -against a string, can be used for a kind of string comparison; see -@ref{Regexp Search}. - -@node String Conversion -@comment node-name, next, previous, up -@section Conversion of Characters and Strings -@cindex conversion of strings - - This section describes functions for conversions between characters, -strings and integers. @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) -and @code{prin1-to-string} -(@pxref{Output Functions}) can also convert Lisp objects into strings. -@code{read-from-string} (@pxref{Input Functions}) can ``convert'' a -string representation of a Lisp object into an object. The functions -@code{string-make-multibyte} and @code{string-make-unibyte} convert the -text representation of a string (@pxref{Converting Representations}). - - @xref{Documentation}, for functions that produce textual descriptions -of text characters and general input events -(@code{single-key-description} and @code{text-char-description}). These -are used primarily for making help messages. - -@defun char-to-string character -@cindex character to string -This function returns a new string containing one character, -@var{character}. This function is semi-obsolete because the function -@code{string} is more general. @xref{Creating Strings}. -@end defun - -@defun string-to-char string -@cindex string to character - This function returns the first character in @var{string}. If the -string is empty, the function returns 0. The value is also 0 when the -first character of @var{string} is the null character, @acronym{ASCII} code -0. - -@example -(string-to-char "ABC") - @result{} 65 - -(string-to-char "xyz") - @result{} 120 -(string-to-char "") - @result{} 0 -@group -(string-to-char "\000") - @result{} 0 -@end group -@end example - -This function may be eliminated in the future if it does not seem useful -enough to retain. -@end defun - -@defun number-to-string number -@cindex integer to string -@cindex integer to decimal -This function returns a string consisting of the printed base-ten -representation of @var{number}, which may be an integer or a floating -point number. The returned value starts with a minus sign if the argument is -negative. - -@example -(number-to-string 256) - @result{} "256" -@group -(number-to-string -23) - @result{} "-23" -@end group -(number-to-string -23.5) - @result{} "-23.5" -@end example - -@cindex int-to-string -@code{int-to-string} is a semi-obsolete alias for this function. - -See also the function @code{format} in @ref{Formatting Strings}. -@end defun - -@defun string-to-number string &optional base -@cindex string to number -This function returns the numeric value of the characters in -@var{string}. If @var{base} is non-@code{nil}, it must be an integer -between 2 and 16 (inclusive), and integers are converted in that base. -If @var{base} is @code{nil}, then base ten is used. Floating point -conversion only works in base ten; we have not implemented other -radices for floating point numbers, because that would be much more -work and does not seem useful. If @var{string} looks like an integer -but its value is too large to fit into a Lisp integer, -@code{string-to-number} returns a floating point result. - -The parsing skips spaces and tabs at the beginning of @var{string}, -then reads as much of @var{string} as it can interpret as a number in -the given base. (On some systems it ignores other whitespace at the -beginning, not just spaces and tabs.) If the first character after -the ignored whitespace is neither a digit in the given base, nor a -plus or minus sign, nor the leading dot of a floating point number, -this function returns 0. - -@example -(string-to-number "256") - @result{} 256 -(string-to-number "25 is a perfect square.") - @result{} 25 -(string-to-number "X256") - @result{} 0 -(string-to-number "-4.5") - @result{} -4.5 -(string-to-number "1e5") - @result{} 100000.0 -@end example - -@findex string-to-int -@code{string-to-int} is an obsolete alias for this function. -@end defun - - Here are some other functions that can convert to or from a string: - -@table @code -@item concat -@code{concat} can convert a vector or a list into a string. -@xref{Creating Strings}. - -@item vconcat -@code{vconcat} can convert a string into a vector. @xref{Vector -Functions}. - -@item append -@code{append} can convert a string into a list. @xref{Building Lists}. -@end table - -@node Formatting Strings -@comment node-name, next, previous, up -@section Formatting Strings -@cindex formatting strings -@cindex strings, formatting them - - @dfn{Formatting} means constructing a string by substitution of -computed values at various places in a constant string. This constant string -controls how the other values are printed, as well as where they appear; -it is called a @dfn{format string}. - - Formatting is often useful for computing messages to be displayed. In -fact, the functions @code{message} and @code{error} provide the same -formatting feature described here; they differ from @code{format} only -in how they use the result of formatting. - -@defun format string &rest objects -This function returns a new string that is made by copying -@var{string} and then replacing any format specification -in the copy with encodings of the corresponding @var{objects}. The -arguments @var{objects} are the computed values to be formatted. - -The characters in @var{string}, other than the format specifications, -are copied directly into the output, including their text properties, -if any. -@end defun - -@cindex @samp{%} in format -@cindex format specification - A format specification is a sequence of characters beginning with a -@samp{%}. Thus, if there is a @samp{%d} in @var{string}, the -@code{format} function replaces it with the printed representation of -one of the values to be formatted (one of the arguments @var{objects}). -For example: - -@example -@group -(format "The value of fill-column is %d." fill-column) - @result{} "The value of fill-column is 72." -@end group -@end example - - Since @code{format} interprets @samp{%} characters as format -specifications, you should @emph{never} pass an arbitrary string as -the first argument. This is particularly true when the string is -generated by some Lisp code. Unless the string is @emph{known} to -never include any @samp{%} characters, pass @code{"%s"}, described -below, as the first argument, and the string as the second, like this: - -@example - (format "%s" @var{arbitrary-string}) -@end example - - If @var{string} contains more than one format specification, the -format specifications correspond to successive values from -@var{objects}. Thus, the first format specification in @var{string} -uses the first such value, the second format specification uses the -second such value, and so on. Any extra format specifications (those -for which there are no corresponding values) cause an error. Any -extra values to be formatted are ignored. - - Certain format specifications require values of particular types. If -you supply a value that doesn't fit the requirements, an error is -signaled. - - Here is a table of valid format specifications: - -@table @samp -@item %s -Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, -made without quoting (that is, using @code{princ}, not -@code{prin1}---@pxref{Output Functions}). Thus, strings are represented -by their contents alone, with no @samp{"} characters, and symbols appear -without @samp{\} characters. - -If the object is a string, its text properties are -copied into the output. The text properties of the @samp{%s} itself -are also copied, but those of the object take priority. - -@item %S -Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, -made with quoting (that is, using @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output -Functions}). Thus, strings are enclosed in @samp{"} characters, and -@samp{\} characters appear where necessary before special characters. - -@item %o -@cindex integer to octal -Replace the specification with the base-eight representation of an -integer. - -@item %d -Replace the specification with the base-ten representation of an -integer. - -@item %x -@itemx %X -@cindex integer to hexadecimal -Replace the specification with the base-sixteen representation of an -integer. @samp{%x} uses lower case and @samp{%X} uses upper case. - -@item %c -Replace the specification with the character which is the value given. - -@item %e -Replace the specification with the exponential notation for a floating -point number. - -@item %f -Replace the specification with the decimal-point notation for a floating -point number. - -@item %g -Replace the specification with notation for a floating point number, -using either exponential notation or decimal-point notation, whichever -is shorter. - -@item %% -Replace the specification with a single @samp{%}. This format -specification is unusual in that it does not use a value. For example, -@code{(format "%% %d" 30)} returns @code{"% 30"}. -@end table - - Any other format character results in an @samp{Invalid format -operation} error. - - Here are several examples: - -@example -@group -(format "The name of this buffer is %s." (buffer-name)) - @result{} "The name of this buffer is strings.texi." - -(format "The buffer object prints as %s." (current-buffer)) - @result{} "The buffer object prints as strings.texi." - -(format "The octal value of %d is %o, - and the hex value is %x." 18 18 18) - @result{} "The octal value of 18 is 22, - and the hex value is 12." -@end group -@end example - -@cindex field width -@cindex padding - A specification can have a @dfn{width}, which is a signed decimal -number between the @samp{%} and the specification character. If the -printed representation of the object contains fewer characters than -this width, @code{format} extends it with padding. The padding goes -on the left if the width is positive (or starts with zero) and on the -right if the width is negative. The padding character is normally a -space, but it's @samp{0} if the width starts with a zero. - - Some of these conventions are ignored for specification characters -for which they do not make sense. That is, @samp{%s}, @samp{%S} and -@samp{%c} accept a width starting with 0, but still pad with -@emph{spaces} on the left. Also, @samp{%%} accepts a width, but -ignores it. Here are some examples of padding: - -@example -(format "%06d is padded on the left with zeros" 123) - @result{} "000123 is padded on the left with zeros" - -(format "%-6d is padded on the right" 123) - @result{} "123 is padded on the right" -@end example - -@noindent -If the width is too small, @code{format} does not truncate the -object's printed representation. Thus, you can use a width to specify -a minimum spacing between columns with no risk of losing information. - - In the following three examples, @samp{%7s} specifies a minimum -width of 7. In the first case, the string inserted in place of -@samp{%7s} has only 3 letters, it needs 4 blank spaces as padding. In -the second case, the string @code{"specification"} is 13 letters wide -but is not truncated. In the third case, the padding is on the right. - -@smallexample -@group -(format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." - "foo" (length "foo")) - @result{} "The word ` foo' actually has 3 letters in it." -@end group - -@group -(format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." - "specification" (length "specification")) - @result{} "The word `specification' actually has 13 letters in it." -@end group - -@group -(format "The word `%-7s' actually has %d letters in it." - "foo" (length "foo")) - @result{} "The word `foo ' actually has 3 letters in it." -@end group -@end smallexample - -@cindex precision in format specifications - All the specification characters allow an optional @dfn{precision} -before the character (after the width, if present). The precision is -a decimal-point @samp{.} followed by a digit-string. For the -floating-point specifications (@samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, @samp{%g}), the -precision specifies how many decimal places to show; if zero, the -decimal-point itself is also omitted. For @samp{%s} and @samp{%S}, -the precision truncates the string to the given width, so @samp{%.3s} -shows only the first three characters of the representation for -@var{object}. Precision has no effect for other specification -characters. - -@cindex flags in format specifications - Immediately after the @samp{%} and before the optional width and -precision, you can put certain ``flag'' characters. - - @samp{+} as a flag inserts a plus sign before a positive number, so -that it always has a sign. A space character as flag inserts a space -before a positive number. (Otherwise, positive numbers start with the -first digit.) Either of these two flags ensures that positive numbers -and negative numbers use the same number of columns. These flags are -ignored except for @samp{%d}, @samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, @samp{%g}, and if -both flags are used, the @samp{+} takes precedence. - - The flag @samp{#} specifies an ``alternate form'' which depends on -the format in use. For @samp{%o} it ensures that the result begins -with a @samp{0}. For @samp{%x} and @samp{%X}, it prefixes the result -with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X}. For @samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, and @samp{%g}, -the @samp{#} flag means include a decimal point even if the precision -is zero. - -@node Case Conversion -@comment node-name, next, previous, up -@section Case Conversion in Lisp -@cindex upper case -@cindex lower case -@cindex character case -@cindex case conversion in Lisp - - The character case functions change the case of single characters or -of the contents of strings. The functions normally convert only -alphabetic characters (the letters @samp{A} through @samp{Z} and -@samp{a} through @samp{z}, as well as non-@acronym{ASCII} letters); other -characters are not altered. You can specify a different case -conversion mapping by specifying a case table (@pxref{Case Tables}). - - These functions do not modify the strings that are passed to them as -arguments. - - The examples below use the characters @samp{X} and @samp{x} which have -@acronym{ASCII} codes 88 and 120 respectively. - -@defun downcase string-or-char -This function converts a character or a string to lower case. - -When the argument to @code{downcase} is a string, the function creates -and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is -upper case is converted to lower case. When the argument to -@code{downcase} is a character, @code{downcase} returns the -corresponding lower case character. This value is an integer. If the -original character is lower case, or is not a letter, then the value -equals the original character. - -@example -(downcase "The cat in the hat") - @result{} "the cat in the hat" - -(downcase ?X) - @result{} 120 -@end example -@end defun - -@defun upcase string-or-char -This function converts a character or a string to upper case. - -When the argument to @code{upcase} is a string, the function creates -and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is -lower case is converted to upper case. - -When the argument to @code{upcase} is a character, @code{upcase} -returns the corresponding upper case character. This value is an integer. -If the original character is upper case, or is not a letter, then the -value returned equals the original character. - -@example -(upcase "The cat in the hat") - @result{} "THE CAT IN THE HAT" - -(upcase ?x) - @result{} 88 -@end example -@end defun - -@defun capitalize string-or-char -@cindex capitalization -This function capitalizes strings or characters. If -@var{string-or-char} is a string, the function creates and returns a new -string, whose contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char} in which each -word has been capitalized. This means that the first character of each -word is converted to upper case, and the rest are converted to lower -case. - -The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that -are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax -table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). - -When the argument to @code{capitalize} is a character, @code{capitalize} -has the same result as @code{upcase}. - -@example -@group -(capitalize "The cat in the hat") - @result{} "The Cat In The Hat" -@end group - -@group -(capitalize "THE 77TH-HATTED CAT") - @result{} "The 77th-Hatted Cat" -@end group - -@group -(capitalize ?x) - @result{} 88 -@end group -@end example -@end defun - -@defun upcase-initials string-or-char -If @var{string-or-char} is a string, this function capitalizes the -initials of the words in @var{string-or-char}, without altering any -letters other than the initials. It returns a new string whose -contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char}, in which each word has -had its initial letter converted to upper case. - -The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that -are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax -table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). - -When the argument to @code{upcase-initials} is a character, -@code{upcase-initials} has the same result as @code{upcase}. - -@example -@group -(upcase-initials "The CAT in the hAt") - @result{} "The CAT In The HAt" -@end group -@end example -@end defun - - @xref{Text Comparison}, for functions that compare strings; some of -them ignore case differences, or can optionally ignore case differences. - -@node Case Tables -@section The Case Table - - You can customize case conversion by installing a special @dfn{case -table}. A case table specifies the mapping between upper case and lower -case letters. It affects both the case conversion functions for Lisp -objects (see the previous section) and those that apply to text in the -buffer (@pxref{Case Changes}). Each buffer has a case table; there is -also a standard case table which is used to initialize the case table -of new buffers. - - A case table is a char-table (@pxref{Char-Tables}) whose subtype is -@code{case-table}. This char-table maps each character into the -corresponding lower case character. It has three extra slots, which -hold related tables: - -@table @var -@item upcase -The upcase table maps each character into the corresponding upper -case character. -@item canonicalize -The canonicalize table maps all of a set of case-related characters -into a particular member of that set. -@item equivalences -The equivalences table maps each one of a set of case-related characters -into the next character in that set. -@end table - - In simple cases, all you need to specify is the mapping to lower-case; -the three related tables will be calculated automatically from that one. - - For some languages, upper and lower case letters are not in one-to-one -correspondence. There may be two different lower case letters with the -same upper case equivalent. In these cases, you need to specify the -maps for both lower case and upper case. - - The extra table @var{canonicalize} maps each character to a canonical -equivalent; any two characters that are related by case-conversion have -the same canonical equivalent character. For example, since @samp{a} -and @samp{A} are related by case-conversion, they should have the same -canonical equivalent character (which should be either @samp{a} for both -of them, or @samp{A} for both of them). - - The extra table @var{equivalences} is a map that cyclically permutes -each equivalence class (of characters with the same canonical -equivalent). (For ordinary @acronym{ASCII}, this would map @samp{a} into -@samp{A} and @samp{A} into @samp{a}, and likewise for each set of -equivalent characters.) - - When you construct a case table, you can provide @code{nil} for -@var{canonicalize}; then Emacs fills in this slot from the lower case -and upper case mappings. You can also provide @code{nil} for -@var{equivalences}; then Emacs fills in this slot from -@var{canonicalize}. In a case table that is actually in use, those -components are non-@code{nil}. Do not try to specify @var{equivalences} -without also specifying @var{canonicalize}. - - Here are the functions for working with case tables: - -@defun case-table-p object -This predicate returns non-@code{nil} if @var{object} is a valid case -table. -@end defun - -@defun set-standard-case-table table -This function makes @var{table} the standard case table, so that it will -be used in any buffers created subsequently. -@end defun - -@defun standard-case-table -This returns the standard case table. -@end defun - -@defun current-case-table -This function returns the current buffer's case table. -@end defun - -@defun set-case-table table -This sets the current buffer's case table to @var{table}. -@end defun - -@defmac with-case-table table body@dots{} -The @code{with-case-table} macro saves the current case table, makes -@var{table} the current case table, evaluates the @var{body} forms, -and finally restores the case table. The return value is the value of -the last form in @var{body}. The case table is restored even in case -of an abnormal exit via @code{throw} or error (@pxref{Nonlocal -Exits}). -@end defmac - - Some language environments may modify the case conversions of -@acronym{ASCII} characters; for example, in the Turkish language -environment, the @acronym{ASCII} character @samp{I} is downcased into -a Turkish ``dotless i''. This can interfere with code that requires -ordinary ASCII case conversion, such as implementations of -@acronym{ASCII}-based network protocols. In that case, use the -@code{with-case-table} macro with the variable @var{ascii-case-table}, -which stores the unmodified case table for the @acronym{ASCII} -character set. - -@defvar ascii-case-table -The case table for the @acronym{ASCII} character set. This should not be -modified by any language environment settings. -@end defvar - - The following three functions are convenient subroutines for packages -that define non-@acronym{ASCII} character sets. They modify the specified -case table @var{case-table}; they also modify the standard syntax table. -@xref{Syntax Tables}. Normally you would use these functions to change -the standard case table. - -@defun set-case-syntax-pair uc lc case-table -This function specifies a pair of corresponding letters, one upper case -and one lower case. -@end defun - -@defun set-case-syntax-delims l r case-table -This function makes characters @var{l} and @var{r} a matching pair of -case-invariant delimiters. -@end defun - -@defun set-case-syntax char syntax case-table -This function makes @var{char} case-invariant, with syntax -@var{syntax}. -@end defun - -@deffn Command describe-buffer-case-table -This command displays a description of the contents of the current -buffer's case table. -@end deffn - -@ignore - arch-tag: 700b8e95-7aa5-4b52-9eb3-8f2e1ea152b4 -@end ignore