Mercurial > emacs
changeset 84036:d995f8c693b2
Move to ../doc/lispref
| author | Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org> |
|---|---|
| date | Thu, 06 Sep 2007 04:15:17 +0000 |
| parents | c4e4bacee37a |
| children | fdef7f039e18 |
| files | lispref/variables.texi |
| diffstat | 1 files changed, 0 insertions(+), 1908 deletions(-) [+] |
line wrap: on
line diff
--- a/lispref/variables.texi Thu Sep 06 04:15:11 2007 +0000 +++ /dev/null Thu Jan 01 00:00:00 1970 +0000 @@ -1,1908 +0,0 @@ -@c -*-texinfo-*- -@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. -@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000, -@c 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. -@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. -@setfilename ../info/variables -@node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top -@chapter Variables -@cindex variable - - A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value. -Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the -text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for -symbols. - - In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented -primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp -objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable -name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the -symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as -a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}. - - The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual -form of the program---it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp -objects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program -is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the -variable. - -@menu -* Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere. -* Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change. -* Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily. -* Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values. -* Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable. -* Tips for Defining:: Things you should think about when you - define a variable. -* Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names - are known only at run time. -* Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables. -* Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values. -* Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer. -* Frame-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one frame. -* Future Local Variables:: New kinds of local values we might add some day. -* File Local Variables:: Handling local variable lists in files. -* Variable Aliases:: Variables that are aliases for other variables. -* Variables with Restricted Values:: Non-constant variables whose value can - @emph{not} be an arbitrary Lisp object. -@end menu - -@node Global Variables -@section Global Variables -@cindex global variable - - The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that -the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect -(at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains -in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the -old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable. - - You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example, - -@example -(setq x '(a b)) -@end example - -@noindent -gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that -@code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of the -variable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value. - - Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbol -by itself as an expression. Thus, - -@example -@group -x @result{} (a b) -@end group -@end example - -@noindent -assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed. - - If you do set the same variable again, the new value replaces the old -one: - -@example -@group -x - @result{} (a b) -@end group -@group -(setq x 4) - @result{} 4 -@end group -@group -x - @result{} 4 -@end group -@end example - -@node Constant Variables -@section Variables that Never Change -@kindex setting-constant -@cindex keyword symbol -@cindex variable with constant value -@cindex constant variables -@cindex symbol that evaluates to itself -@cindex symbol with constant value - - In Emacs Lisp, certain symbols normally evaluate to themselves. These -include @code{nil} and @code{t}, as well as any symbol whose name starts -with @samp{:} (these are called @dfn{keywords}). These symbols cannot -be rebound, nor can their values be changed. Any attempt to set or bind -@code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error. The -same is true for a keyword (a symbol whose name starts with @samp{:}), -if it is interned in the standard obarray, except that setting such a -symbol to itself is not an error. - -@example -@group -nil @equiv{} 'nil - @result{} nil -@end group -@group -(setq nil 500) -@error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil -@end group -@end example - -@defun keywordp object -function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a symbol whose name -starts with @samp{:}, interned in the standard obarray, and returns -@code{nil} otherwise. -@end defun - -@node Local Variables -@section Local Variables -@cindex binding local variables -@cindex local variables -@cindex local binding -@cindex global binding - - Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded -with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that -exist temporarily---only until a certain part of the program finishes. -These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are -called @dfn{local variables}. - - For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive -new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let} -special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified -variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form. - -@cindex shadowing of variables - Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of -one) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over, -the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that the -previous value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and -local values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}). - - If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local, -this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or -previous local values, that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we -speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value. - - The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value. -Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the -local binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes the -local binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value -is stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a -local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does -not create a new binding. - - We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where -(conceptually) the global value is kept. - -@cindex current binding - A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for -example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a -case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the -@dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This rule is called -@dfn{dynamic scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no -local bindings, the variable's global binding is its current binding. -We sometimes call the current binding the @dfn{most-local existing -binding}, for emphasis. Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns -the value of its current binding. - - The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create -local bindings. - -@defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} -This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then -evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form -returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}. - -Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case -that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form -@code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is -bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form} -is omitted, @code{nil} is used. - -All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the -order they appear and @emph{before} binding any of the symbols to them. -Here is an example of this: @code{z} is bound to the old value of -@code{y}, which is 2, not the new value of @code{y}, which is 1. - -@example -@group -(setq y 2) - @result{} 2 -@end group -@group -(let ((y 1) - (z y)) - (list y z)) - @result{} (1 2) -@end group -@end example -@end defspec - -@defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} -This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right -after computing its local value, before computing the local value for -the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can -reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*} -form. Compare the following example with the example above for -@code{let}. - -@example -@group -(setq y 2) - @result{} 2 -@end group -@group -(let* ((y 1) - (z y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{y}.} - (list y z)) - @result{} (1 1) -@end group -@end example -@end defspec - - Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local -bindings: - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Function calls (@pxref{Functions}). - -@item -Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}). - -@item -@code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}). -@end itemize - - Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local -Variables}) and frame-local bindings (@pxref{Frame-Local Variables}); a -few variables have terminal-local bindings (@pxref{Multiple Displays}). -These kinds of bindings work somewhat like ordinary local bindings, but -they are localized depending on ``where'' you are in Emacs, rather than -localized in time. - -@defvar max-specpdl-size -@anchor{Definition of max-specpdl-size} -@cindex variable limit error -@cindex evaluation error -@cindex infinite recursion -This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable -bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Cleanups,, -Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits}) that are allowed before signaling an -error (with data @code{"Variable binding depth exceeds -max-specpdl-size"}). - -This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way -that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function. -@code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting. -@xref{Definition of max-lisp-eval-depth,, Eval}. - -The default value is 1000. Entry to the Lisp debugger increases the -value, if there is little room left, to make sure the debugger itself -has room to execute. -@end defvar - -@node Void Variables -@section When a Variable is ``Void'' -@kindex void-variable -@cindex void variable - - If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we -say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the -symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to -evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than -a value. - - Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol -@code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any -other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not -have any value. - - After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more -using @code{makunbound}. - -@defun makunbound symbol -This function makes the current variable binding of @var{symbol} void. -Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal -the error @code{void-variable}, unless and until you set it again. - -@code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}. - -@example -@group -(makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value of @code{x} void.} - @result{} x -@end group -@group -x -@error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x -@end group -@end example - -If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most -local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void -local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings -create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as -long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from -the construct that made it, the previous local or global binding is -reexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly -reexposed binding was void all along. - -@smallexample -@group -(setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.} - @result{} 1 -(let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} - (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.} - x) -@error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x -@end group -@group -x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.} - @result{} 1 - -(let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} - (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.} - (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.} - x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.} -@error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x -@end group - -@group -(let ((x 2)) - (let ((x 3)) - (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.} - x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.} - @result{} 2 -@end group -@end smallexample -@end defun - - A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is -indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has -always been void. - - You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is -currently void. - -@defun boundp variable -@code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void; -more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns -@code{nil} otherwise. - -@smallexample -@group -(boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.} - @result{} nil -@end group -@group -(let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} - (boundp 'abracadabra)) - @result{} t -@end group -@group -(boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.} - @result{} nil -@end group -@group -(setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.} - @result{} 5 -@end group -@group -(boundp 'abracadabra) - @result{} t -@end group -@end smallexample -@end defun - -@node Defining Variables -@section Defining Global Variables -@cindex variable definition - - You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable -with a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst} -or @code{defvar}. - - In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform -people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be -used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system -of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they -provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and -@code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and -variables in a program. - - The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily -a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether the value -should ever change. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which a -variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar} -declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization: -@code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while -@code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void. - -@ignore - One would expect user option variables to be defined with -@code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this -has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded: -@code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is -loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init -files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For -this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}. -@end ignore - -@defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]] -This special form defines @var{symbol} as a variable and can also -initialize and document it. The definition informs a person reading -your code that @var{symbol} is used as a variable that might be set or -changed. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be -defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}. - -If @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar} -evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. But if @var{symbol} -already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} is not even -evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If @var{value} -is omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case. - -If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, -@code{defvar} operates on the default value, which is buffer-independent, -not the current (buffer-local) binding. It sets the default value if -the default value is void. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. - -When you evaluate a top-level @code{defvar} form with @kbd{C-M-x} in -Emacs Lisp mode (@code{eval-defun}), a special feature of -@code{eval-defun} arranges to set the variable unconditionally, without -testing whether its value is void. - -If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation -for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of -the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is -stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The -Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property. - -If the variable is a user option that users would want to set -interactively, you should use @samp{*} as the first character of -@var{doc-string}. This lets users set the variable conveniently using -the @code{set-variable} command. Note that you should nearly always -use @code{defcustom} instead of @code{defvar} to define these -variables, so that users can use @kbd{M-x customize} and related -commands to set them. @xref{Customization}. - -Here are some examples. This form defines @code{foo} but does not -initialize it: - -@example -@group -(defvar foo) - @result{} foo -@end group -@end example - -This example initializes the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and gives -it a documentation string: - -@example -@group -(defvar bar 23 - "The normal weight of a bar.") - @result{} bar -@end group -@end example - -The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar}, -making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar} -already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ nil)} would get an error -if it were evaluated, but since it is not evaluated, there is no error.) - -@example -@group -(defvar bar (1+ nil) - "*The normal weight of a bar.") - @result{} bar -@end group -@group -bar - @result{} 23 -@end group -@end example - -Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form: - -@example -@group -(defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string}) -@equiv{} -(progn - (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol})) - (setq @var{symbol} @var{value})) - (if '@var{doc-string} - (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string})) - '@var{symbol}) -@end group -@end example - -The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used -at top level in a file where its value does not matter. -@end defspec - -@defspec defconst symbol value [doc-string] -This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it. -It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a standard -global value, established here, that should not be changed by the user -or by other programs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the -symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}. - -@code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value}, and sets the value of -@var{symbol} to the result. If @var{symbol} does have a buffer-local -binding in the current buffer, @code{defconst} sets the default value, -not the buffer-local value. (But you should not be making -buffer-local bindings for a symbol that is defined with -@code{defconst}.) - -Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed -by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding). -As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory. - -@example -@group -(defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.") - @result{} pi -@end group -@group -(setq pi 3) - @result{} pi -@end group -@group -pi - @result{} 3 -@end group -@end example -@end defspec - -@defun user-variable-p variable -@cindex user option -This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---a -variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and -@code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the -internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.) - -User option variables are distinguished from other variables either -though being declared using @code{defcustom}@footnote{They may also be -declared equivalently in @file{cus-start.el}.} or by the first character -of their @code{variable-documentation} property. If the property exists -and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, then the variable -is a user option. Aliases of user options are also user options. -@end defun - -@kindex variable-interactive - If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property, -the @code{set-variable} command uses that value to control reading the -new value for the variable. The property's value is used as if it were -specified in @code{interactive} (@pxref{Using Interactive}). However, -this feature is largely obsoleted by @code{defcustom} -(@pxref{Customization}). - - @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special -forms are used while the variable has a local binding (made with -@code{let}, or a function argument), they set the local-binding's -value; the top-level binding is not changed. This is not what you -usually want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top level in -a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make sure to -load the file before making a local binding for the variable. - -@node Tips for Defining -@section Tips for Defining Variables Robustly - - When you define a variable whose value is a function, or a list of -functions, use a name that ends in @samp{-function} or -@samp{-functions}, respectively. - - There are several other variable name conventions; -here is a complete list: - -@table @samp -@item @dots{}-hook -The variable is a normal hook (@pxref{Hooks}). - -@item @dots{}-function -The value is a function. - -@item @dots{}-functions -The value is a list of functions. - -@item @dots{}-form -The value is a form (an expression). - -@item @dots{}-forms -The value is a list of forms (expressions). - -@item @dots{}-predicate -The value is a predicate---a function of one argument that returns -non-@code{nil} for ``good'' arguments and @code{nil} for ``bad'' -arguments. - -@item @dots{}-flag -The value is significant only as to whether it is @code{nil} or not. - -@item @dots{}-program -The value is a program name. - -@item @dots{}-command -The value is a whole shell command. - -@item @dots{}-switches -The value specifies options for a command. -@end table - - When you define a variable, always consider whether you should mark -it as ``risky''; see @ref{File Local Variables}. - - When defining and initializing a variable that holds a complicated -value (such as a keymap with bindings in it), it's best to put the -entire computation of the value into the @code{defvar}, like this: - -@example -(defvar my-mode-map - (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) - (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) - @dots{} - map) - @var{docstring}) -@end example - -@noindent -This method has several benefits. First, if the user quits while -loading the file, the variable is either still uninitialized or -initialized properly, never in-between. If it is still uninitialized, -reloading the file will initialize it properly. Second, reloading the -file once the variable is initialized will not alter it; that is -important if the user has run hooks to alter part of the contents (such -as, to rebind keys). Third, evaluating the @code{defvar} form with -@kbd{C-M-x} @emph{will} reinitialize the map completely. - - Putting so much code in the @code{defvar} form has one disadvantage: -it puts the documentation string far away from the line which names the -variable. Here's a safe way to avoid that: - -@example -(defvar my-mode-map nil - @var{docstring}) -(unless my-mode-map - (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) - (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) - @dots{} - (setq my-mode-map map))) -@end example - -@noindent -This has all the same advantages as putting the initialization inside -the @code{defvar}, except that you must type @kbd{C-M-x} twice, once on -each form, if you do want to reinitialize the variable. - - But be careful not to write the code like this: - -@example -(defvar my-mode-map nil - @var{docstring}) -(unless my-mode-map - (setq my-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap)) - (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) - @dots{}) -@end example - -@noindent -This code sets the variable, then alters it, but it does so in more than -one step. If the user quits just after the @code{setq}, that leaves the -variable neither correctly initialized nor void nor @code{nil}. Once -that happens, reloading the file will not initialize the variable; it -will remain incomplete. - -@node Accessing Variables -@section Accessing Variable Values - - The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which -names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the -variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what -you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which -variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}. - -@defun symbol-value symbol -This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in -the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it -has no local bindings. - -@example -@group -(setq abracadabra 5) - @result{} 5 -@end group -@group -(setq foo 9) - @result{} 9 -@end group - -@group -;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}} -;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} -(let ((abracadabra 'foo)) - (symbol-value 'abracadabra)) - @result{} foo -@end group - -@group -;; @r{Here, the value of @code{abracadabra},} -;; @r{which is @code{foo},} -;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} -(let ((abracadabra 'foo)) - (symbol-value abracadabra)) - @result{} 9 -@end group - -@group -(symbol-value 'abracadabra) - @result{} 5 -@end group -@end example - -A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if the current binding of -@var{symbol} is void. -@end defun - -@node Setting Variables -@section How to Alter a Variable Value - - The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special -form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at -run time, use the function @code{set}. - -@defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{} -This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's -value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of -evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing -binding of the symbol is changed. - -@code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you -write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The -@samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.'' - -The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}. - -@example -@group -(setq x (1+ 2)) - @result{} 3 -@end group -x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.} - @result{} 3 -@group -(let ((x 5)) - (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.} - x) - @result{} 6 -@end group -x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.} - @result{} 3 -@end example - -Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first -@var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the -second @var{symbol} is set, and so on: - -@example -@group -(setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before} - y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.} - @result{} 11 -@end group -@end example -@end defspec - -@defun set symbol value -This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns -@var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for -@var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set. - -The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is -set; shadowed bindings are not affected. - -@example -@group -(set one 1) -@error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one -@end group -@group -(set 'one 1) - @result{} 1 -@end group -@group -(set 'two 'one) - @result{} one -@end group -@group -(set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.} - @result{} 2 -@end group -@group -one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.} - @result{} 2 -(let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,} - (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.} - one) - @result{} 3 -@end group -@group -one - @result{} 2 -@end group -@end example - -If @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument} -error is signaled. - -@example -(set '(x y) 'z) -@error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y) -@end example - -Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than -@code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use -@code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the -availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used; -beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosing -at run time which variable to set. For example, the command -@code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then -sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}. - -@cindex CL note---@code{set} local -@quotation -@b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the -symbol's ``special'' or dynamic value, ignoring any lexical bindings. -In Emacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are dynamic, so @code{set} -always affects the most local existing binding. -@end quotation -@end defun - -@node Variable Scoping -@section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings - - A given symbol @code{foo} can have several local variable bindings, -established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global -binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over -the others. - -@cindex scope -@cindex extent -@cindex dynamic scoping -@cindex lexical scoping - Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and -@dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in -the source code the binding can be accessed. ``Indefinite scope'' means -that any part of the program can potentially access the variable -binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is -executing, the binding exists. ``Dynamic extent'' means that the binding -lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it. - - The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called -@dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use -@dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be -located textually within the function or block that binds the variable. - -@cindex CL note---special variables -@quotation -@b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp are -dynamically scoped, like all variables in Emacs Lisp. -@end quotation - -@menu -* Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible. - Comparison with other languages. -* Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists. -* Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping. -* Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems. -@end menu - -@node Scope -@subsection Scope - - Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings. -This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a -given binding of a variable. Consider the following function -definitions: - -@example -@group -(defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.} - (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.} -@end group - -@group -(defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used ``free'' in @code{user}.} - (list x)) -@end group -@end example - - In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in -@code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because -@code{user} is not textually contained within the function -@code{binder}. However, in dynamically-scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user} -may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in -@code{binder}, depending on the circumstances: - -@itemize @bullet -@item -If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all, -then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from -@code{binder}. - -@item -If we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, then the -binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}: - -@example -@group -(defun foo (lose) - (user)) -@end group -@end example - -@item -However, if we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, -then the binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in -@code{user}: - -@example -(defun foo (x) - (user)) -@end example - -@noindent -Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}. -(The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in -@code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound -by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}. -@end itemize - -Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations of -lexical scoping are slow. In addition, every Lisp system needs to offer -dynamic scoping at least as an option; if lexical scoping is the norm, -there must be a way to specify dynamic scoping instead for a particular -variable. It might not be a bad thing for Emacs to offer both, but -implementing it with dynamic scoping only was much easier. - -@node Extent -@subsection Extent - - @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a -variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while -the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic -extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages, -including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent. - - One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This -means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form -that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support -this, but Emacs Lisp does not. - - To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a -function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. This -would work in Common Lisp, but it does not do the job in Emacs Lisp, -because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the variable @code{n} -is no longer bound to the actual argument 2. - -@example -(defun make-add (n) - (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.} - @result{} make-add -(fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}} - ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.} - @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m)) -(add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.} -@error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n -@end example - -@cindex closures not available - Some Lisp dialects have ``closures,'' objects that are like functions -but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have -closures. - -@node Impl of Scope -@subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping -@cindex deep binding - - A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually -works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is -called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems. - - Suppose there is a stack of bindings, which are variable-value pairs. -At entry to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings -onto the stack for the arguments or local variables created there. We -can pop those bindings from the stack at exit from the binding -construct. - - We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to -bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is -the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the -current binding, then store the new value into that binding. - - As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it -continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is -why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function -can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the -bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite. - -@cindex shallow binding - The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a -technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard -place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the -symbol. - - In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in -the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value -(belonging to a previous binding) onto a stack, and storing the new -local value in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping -the old value off the stack, into the value cell. - - We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep -binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a -binding. - -@node Using Scoping -@subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping - - Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a -powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs -hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique: - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close -together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within -one program. - -You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see -all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses -elsewhere. - -@item -Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all -appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever -that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable -@code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case -when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it -directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it. - -Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what -the effect will be. -@end itemize - - In either case, you should define the variable with @code{defvar}. -This helps other people understand your program by telling them to look -for inter-function usage. It also avoids a warning from the byte -compiler. Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts---don't -use short names like @code{x}. - -@node Buffer-Local Variables -@section Buffer-Local Variables -@cindex variable, buffer-local -@cindex buffer-local variables - - Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming -languages in one form or another. Emacs, however, also supports additional, -unusual kinds of variable binding: @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which -apply only in one buffer, and @dfn{frame-local} bindings, which apply only in -one frame. Having different values for a variable in different buffers -and/or frames is an important customization method. - - This section describes buffer-local bindings; for frame-local -bindings, see the following section, @ref{Frame-Local Variables}. (A few -variables have bindings that are local to each terminal; see -@ref{Multiple Displays}.) - -@menu -* Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts. -* Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings. -* Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers - that don't have their own buffer-local values. -@end menu - -@node Intro to Buffer-Local -@subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables - - A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a -particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is -current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while -a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding, -so its other bindings are unchanged. This means that the change is -visible only in the buffer where you made it. - - The variable's ordinary binding, which is not associated with any -specific buffer, is called the @dfn{default binding}. In most cases, -this is the global binding. - - A variable can have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in -other buffers. The default binding is shared by all the buffers that -don't have their own bindings for the variable. (This includes all -newly-created buffers.) If you set the variable in a buffer that does -not have a buffer-local binding for it, this sets the default binding -(assuming there are no frame-local bindings to complicate the matter), -so the new value is visible in all the buffers that see the default -binding. - - The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change -variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and -Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only -blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable -buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and -then setting it to the new value for that mode. @xref{Major Modes}. - - The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with -@code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands typically -use. This affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including -those yet to be created) will continue to share the default value unless -they are explicitly given their own buffer-local bindings. - -@cindex automatically buffer-local - A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as -@dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling -@code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the -variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More -precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes -the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All -buffers start out by sharing the default value of the variable as usual, -but setting the variable creates a buffer-local binding for the current -buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving -the default binding untouched. This means that the default value cannot -be changed with @code{setq} in any buffer; the only way to change it is -with @code{setq-default}. - - @strong{Warning:} When a variable has buffer-local or frame-local -bindings in one or more buffers, @code{let} rebinds the binding that's -currently in effect. For instance, if the current buffer has a -buffer-local value, @code{let} temporarily rebinds that. If no -buffer-local or frame-local bindings are in effect, @code{let} rebinds -the default value. If inside the @code{let} you then change to a -different current buffer in which a different binding is in effect, -you won't see the @code{let} binding any more. And if you exit the -@code{let} while still in the other buffer, you won't see the -unbinding occur (though it will occur properly). Here is an example -to illustrate: - -@example -@group -(setq foo 'g) -(set-buffer "a") -(make-local-variable 'foo) -@end group -(setq foo 'a) -(let ((foo 'temp)) - ;; foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{let binding in buffer @samp{a}} - (set-buffer "b") - ;; foo @result{} 'g ; @r{the global value since foo is not local in @samp{b}} - @var{body}@dots{}) -@group -foo @result{} 'g ; @r{exiting restored the local value in buffer @samp{a},} - ; @r{but we don't see that in buffer @samp{b}} -@end group -@group -(set-buffer "a") ; @r{verify the local value was restored} -foo @result{} 'a -@end group -@end example - - Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the -buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}. - - When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local -values when you visit the file. @xref{File Variables,,, emacs, The -GNU Emacs Manual}. - -@node Creating Buffer-Local -@subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings - -@deffn Command make-local-variable variable -This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for -@var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value -returned is @var{variable}. - -@c Emacs 19 feature -The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value -@var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains -void. - -@example -@group -;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:} -(setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.} - @result{} 5 -@end group -@group -(make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.} - @result{} foo -@end group -@group -foo ; @r{That did not change} - @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.} -@end group -@group -(setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value} - @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.} -@end group -@group -foo - @result{} 6 -@end group - -@group -;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.} -(save-excursion - (set-buffer "b2") - foo) - @result{} 5 -@end group -@end example - -Making a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for that -variable does not work reliably, unless the buffer in which you do this -is not current either on entry to or exit from the @code{let}. This is -because @code{let} does not distinguish between different kinds of -bindings; it knows only which variable the binding was made for. - -If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error. Such -variables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well. @xref{Multiple -Displays}. - -@strong{Warning:} do not use @code{make-local-variable} for a hook -variable. The hook variables are automatically made buffer-local as -needed if you use the @var{local} argument to @code{add-hook} or -@code{remove-hook}. -@end deffn - -@deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable -This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically -buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it -local to the current buffer at the time. - -A peculiar wrinkle of this feature is that binding the variable (with -@code{let} or other binding constructs) does not create a buffer-local -binding for it. Only setting the variable (with @code{set} or -@code{setq}), while the variable does not have a @code{let}-style -binding that was made in the current buffer, does so. - -If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling this -command will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable} -already has a default value, that value remains unchanged. -Subsequently calling @code{makunbound} on @var{variable} will result -in a void buffer-local value and leave the default value unaffected. - -The value returned is @var{variable}. - -@strong{Warning:} Don't assume that you should use -@code{make-variable-buffer-local} for user-option variables, simply -because users @emph{might} want to customize them differently in -different buffers. Users can make any variable local, when they wish -to. It is better to leave the choice to them. - -The time to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} is when it is crucial -that no two buffers ever share the same binding. For example, when a -variable is used for internal purposes in a Lisp program which depends -on having separate values in separate buffers, then using -@code{make-variable-buffer-local} can be the best solution. -@end deffn - -@defun local-variable-p variable &optional buffer -This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is buffer-local in buffer -@var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise, -@code{nil}. -@end defun - -@defun local-variable-if-set-p variable &optional buffer -This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} will become buffer-local in -buffer @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer) if it is -set there. -@end defun - -@defun buffer-local-value variable buffer -This function returns the buffer-local binding of @var{variable} (a -symbol) in buffer @var{buffer}. If @var{variable} does not have a -buffer-local binding in buffer @var{buffer}, it returns the default -value (@pxref{Default Value}) of @var{variable} instead. -@end defun - -@defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer -This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in -buffer @var{buffer}. (If @var{buffer} is omitted, the current buffer is -used.) It returns an association list (@pxref{Association Lists}) in -which each element contains one buffer-local variable and its value. -However, when a variable's buffer-local binding in @var{buffer} is void, -then the variable appears directly in the resulting list. - -@example -@group -(make-local-variable 'foobar) -(makunbound 'foobar) -(make-local-variable 'bind-me) -(setq bind-me 69) -@end group -(setq lcl (buffer-local-variables)) - ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:} -@result{} ((mark-active . nil) - (buffer-undo-list . nil) - (mode-name . "Fundamental") - @dots{} -@group - ;; @r{Next, non-built-in buffer-local variables.} - ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and void:} - foobar - ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and nonvoid:} - (bind-me . 69)) -@end group -@end example - -Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this -list does @emph{not} change the buffer-local values of the variables. -@end defun - -@deffn Command kill-local-variable variable -This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for -@var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the -default binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this buffer. This -typically results in a change in the value of @var{variable}, since the -default value is usually different from the buffer-local value just -eliminated. - -If you kill the buffer-local binding of a variable that automatically -becomes buffer-local when set, this makes the default value visible in -the current buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will -once again create a buffer-local binding for it. - -@code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}. - -This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill one -buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to create -buffer-local variables interactively. -@end deffn - -@defun kill-all-local-variables -This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the -current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent.'' As a -result, the buffer will see the default values of most variables. - -This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the -buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the -value of @code{(standard-syntax-table)}, the case table to -@code{(standard-case-table)}, and the abbrev table to the value of -@code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}. - -The very first thing this function does is run the normal hook -@code{change-major-mode-hook} (see below). - -Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the -effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects -of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the -variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent. - -@code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}. -@end defun - -@defvar change-major-mode-hook -The function @code{kill-all-local-variables} runs this normal hook -before it does anything else. This gives major modes a way to arrange -for something special to be done if the user switches to a different -major mode. It is also useful for buffer-specific minor modes -that should be forgotten if the user changes the major mode. - -For best results, make this variable buffer-local, so that it will -disappear after doing its job and will not interfere with the -subsequent major mode. @xref{Hooks}. -@end defvar - -@c Emacs 19 feature -@cindex permanent local variable -A buffer-local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a -symbol) has a @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}. -Permanent locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file -came from or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents. - -@node Default Value -@subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable -@cindex default value - - The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also -called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in -effect whenever neither the current buffer nor the selected frame has -its own binding for the variable. - - The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and -change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current -buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use -@code{setq-default} to change the default setting of -@code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when -you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value for -this variable. - -@c Emacs 19 feature - The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the -default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any -buffer-local or frame-local value. - -@defun default-value symbol -This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value -that is seen in buffers and frames that do not have their own values for -this variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent -to @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}). -@end defun - -@c Emacs 19 feature -@defun default-boundp symbol -The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'s -default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns -@code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error. - -@code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to -@code{symbol-value}. -@end defun - -@defspec setq-default [symbol form]@dots{} -This special form gives each @var{symbol} a new default value, which is -the result of evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. It does not -evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{form}. The value of the -@code{setq-default} form is the value of the last @var{form}. - -If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not -marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same -effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current -buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long -as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the -current buffer sees. - -@example -@group -;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:} -(make-local-variable 'buffer-local) - @result{} buffer-local -@end group -@group -(setq buffer-local 'value-in-foo) - @result{} value-in-foo -@end group -@group -(setq-default buffer-local 'new-default) - @result{} new-default -@end group -@group -buffer-local - @result{} value-in-foo -@end group -@group -(default-value 'buffer-local) - @result{} new-default -@end group - -@group -;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:} -buffer-local - @result{} new-default -@end group -@group -(default-value 'buffer-local) - @result{} new-default -@end group -@group -(setq buffer-local 'another-default) - @result{} another-default -@end group -@group -(default-value 'buffer-local) - @result{} another-default -@end group - -@group -;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:} -buffer-local - @result{} value-in-foo -(default-value 'buffer-local) - @result{} another-default -@end group -@end example -@end defspec - -@defun set-default symbol value -This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is -an ordinary evaluated argument. - -@example -@group -(set-default (car '(a b c)) 23) - @result{} 23 -@end group -@group -(default-value 'a) - @result{} 23 -@end group -@end example -@end defun - -@node Frame-Local Variables -@section Frame-Local Variables -@cindex frame-local variables - - Just as variables can have buffer-local bindings, they can also have -frame-local bindings. These bindings belong to one frame, and are in -effect when that frame is selected. Frame-local bindings are actually -frame parameters: you create a frame-local binding in a specific frame -by calling @code{modify-frame-parameters} and specifying the variable -name as the parameter name. - - To enable frame-local bindings for a certain variable, call the function -@code{make-variable-frame-local}. - -@deffn Command make-variable-frame-local variable -Enable the use of frame-local bindings for @var{variable}. This does -not in itself create any frame-local bindings for the variable; however, -if some frame already has a value for @var{variable} as a frame -parameter, that value automatically becomes a frame-local binding. - -If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling this -command will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable} -already has a default value, that value remains unchanged. - -If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error, -because such variables cannot have frame-local bindings as well. -@xref{Multiple Displays}. A few variables that are implemented -specially in Emacs can be buffer-local, but can never be frame-local. - -This command returns @var{variable}. -@end deffn - - Buffer-local bindings take precedence over frame-local bindings. Thus, -consider a variable @code{foo}: if the current buffer has a buffer-local -binding for @code{foo}, that binding is active; otherwise, if the -selected frame has a frame-local binding for @code{foo}, that binding is -active; otherwise, the default binding of @code{foo} is active. - - Here is an example. First we prepare a few bindings for @code{foo}: - -@example -(setq f1 (selected-frame)) -(make-variable-frame-local 'foo) - -;; @r{Make a buffer-local binding for @code{foo} in @samp{b1}.} -(set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) -(make-local-variable 'foo) -(setq foo '(b 1)) - -;; @r{Make a frame-local binding for @code{foo} in a new frame.} -;; @r{Store that frame in @code{f2}.} -(setq f2 (make-frame)) -(modify-frame-parameters f2 '((foo . (f 2)))) -@end example - - Now we examine @code{foo} in various contexts. Whenever the -buffer @samp{b1} is current, its buffer-local binding is in effect, -regardless of the selected frame: - -@example -(select-frame f1) -(set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) -foo - @result{} (b 1) - -(select-frame f2) -(set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) -foo - @result{} (b 1) -@end example - -@noindent -Otherwise, the frame gets a chance to provide the binding; when frame -@code{f2} is selected, its frame-local binding is in effect: - -@example -(select-frame f2) -(set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) -foo - @result{} (f 2) -@end example - -@noindent -When neither the current buffer nor the selected frame provides -a binding, the default binding is used: - -@example -(select-frame f1) -(set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) -foo - @result{} nil -@end example - -@noindent -When the active binding of a variable is a frame-local binding, setting -the variable changes that binding. You can observe the result with -@code{frame-parameters}: - -@example -(select-frame f2) -(set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) -(setq foo 'nobody) -(assq 'foo (frame-parameters f2)) - @result{} (foo . nobody) -@end example - -@node Future Local Variables -@section Possible Future Local Variables - - We have considered the idea of bindings that are local to a category -of frames---for example, all color frames, or all frames with dark -backgrounds. We have not implemented them because it is not clear that -this feature is really useful. You can get more or less the same -results by adding a function to @code{after-make-frame-functions}, set up to -define a particular frame parameter according to the appropriate -conditions for each frame. - - It would also be possible to implement window-local bindings. We -don't know of many situations where they would be useful, and it seems -that indirect buffers (@pxref{Indirect Buffers}) with buffer-local -bindings offer a way to handle these situations more robustly. - - If sufficient application is found for either of these two kinds of -local bindings, we will provide it in a subsequent Emacs version. - -@node File Local Variables -@section File Local Variables -@cindex file local variables - - A file can specify local variable values; Emacs uses these to create -buffer-local bindings for those variables in the buffer visiting that -file. @xref{File variables, , Local Variables in Files, emacs, The -GNU Emacs Manual}, for basic information about file local variables. -This section describes the functions and variables that affect -processing of file local variables. - -@defopt enable-local-variables -This variable controls whether to process file local variables. -The possible values are: - -@table @asis -@item @code{t} (the default) -Set the safe variables, and query (once) about any unsafe variables. -@item @code{:safe} -Set only the safe variables and do not query. -@item @code{:all} -Set all the variables and do not query. -@item @code{nil} -Don't set any variables. -@item anything else -Query (once) about all the variables. -@end table -@end defopt - -@defun hack-local-variables &optional mode-only -This function parses, and binds or evaluates as appropriate, any local -variables specified by the contents of the current buffer. The variable -@code{enable-local-variables} has its effect here. However, this -function does not look for the @samp{mode:} local variable in the -@w{@samp{-*-}} line. @code{set-auto-mode} does that, also taking -@code{enable-local-variables} into account (@pxref{Auto Major Mode}). - -If the optional argument @var{mode-only} is non-@code{nil}, then all -this function does is return @code{t} if the @w{@samp{-*-}} line or -the local variables list specifies a mode and @code{nil} otherwise. -It does not set the mode nor any other file local variable. -@end defun - - If a file local variable could specify a function that would -be called later, or an expression that would be executed later, simply -visiting a file could take over your Emacs. Emacs takes several -measures to prevent this. - -@cindex safe local variable - You can specify safe values for a variable with a -@code{safe-local-variable} property. The property has to be -a function of one argument; any value is safe if the function -returns non-@code{nil} given that value. Many commonly encountered -file variables standardly have @code{safe-local-variable} properties, -including @code{fill-column}, @code{fill-prefix}, and -@code{indent-tabs-mode}. For boolean-valued variables that are safe, -use @code{booleanp} as the property value. Lambda expressions should -be quoted so that @code{describe-variable} can display the predicate. - -@defopt safe-local-variable-values -This variable provides another way to mark some variable values as -safe. It is a list of cons cells @code{(@var{var} . @var{val})}, -where @var{var} is a variable name and @var{val} is a value which is -safe for that variable. - -When Emacs asks the user whether or not to obey a set of file local -variable specifications, the user can choose to mark them as safe. -Doing so adds those variable/value pairs to -@code{safe-local-variable-values}, and saves it to the user's custom -file. -@end defopt - -@defun safe-local-variable-p sym val -This function returns non-@code{nil} if it is safe to give @var{sym} -the value @var{val}, based on the above criteria. -@end defun - -@c @cindex risky local variable Duplicates risky-local-variable - Some variables are considered @dfn{risky}. A variable whose name -ends in any of @samp{-command}, @samp{-frame-alist}, @samp{-function}, -@samp{-functions}, @samp{-hook}, @samp{-hooks}, @samp{-form}, -@samp{-forms}, @samp{-map}, @samp{-map-alist}, @samp{-mode-alist}, -@samp{-program}, or @samp{-predicate} is considered risky. The -variables @samp{font-lock-keywords}, @samp{font-lock-keywords} -followed by a digit, and @samp{font-lock-syntactic-keywords} are also -considered risky. Finally, any variable whose name has a -non-@code{nil} @code{risky-local-variable} property is considered -risky. - -@defun risky-local-variable-p sym -This function returns non-@code{nil} if @var{sym} is a risky variable, -based on the above criteria. -@end defun - - If a variable is risky, it will not be entered automatically into -@code{safe-local-variable-values} as described above. Therefore, -Emacs will always query before setting a risky variable, unless the -user explicitly allows the setting by customizing -@code{safe-local-variable-values} directly. - -@defvar ignored-local-variables -This variable holds a list of variables that should not be given local -values by files. Any value specified for one of these variables is -completely ignored. -@end defvar - - The @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' is also a potential loophole, so Emacs -normally asks for confirmation before handling it. - -@defopt enable-local-eval -This variable controls processing of @samp{Eval:} in @samp{-*-} lines -or local variables -lists in files being visited. A value of @code{t} means process them -unconditionally; @code{nil} means ignore them; anything else means ask -the user what to do for each file. The default value is @code{maybe}. -@end defopt - -@defopt safe-local-eval-forms -This variable holds a list of expressions that are safe to -evaluate when found in the @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' in a file -local variables list. -@end defopt - - If the expression is a function call and the function has a -@code{safe-local-eval-function} property, the property value -determines whether the expression is safe to evaluate. The property -value can be a predicate to call to test the expression, a list of -such predicates (it's safe if any predicate succeeds), or @code{t} -(always safe provided the arguments are constant). - - Text properties are also potential loopholes, since their values -could include functions to call. So Emacs discards all text -properties from string values specified for file local variables. - -@node Variable Aliases -@section Variable Aliases -@cindex variable aliases - - It is sometimes useful to make two variables synonyms, so that both -variables always have the same value, and changing either one also -changes the other. Whenever you change the name of a -variable---either because you realize its old name was not well -chosen, or because its meaning has partly changed---it can be useful -to keep the old name as an @emph{alias} of the new one for -compatibility. You can do this with @code{defvaralias}. - -@defun defvaralias new-alias base-variable &optional docstring -This function defines the symbol @var{new-alias} as a variable alias -for symbol @var{base-variable}. This means that retrieving the value -of @var{new-alias} returns the value of @var{base-variable}, and -changing the value of @var{new-alias} changes the value of -@var{base-variable}. The two aliased variable names always share the -same value and the same bindings. - -If the @var{docstring} argument is non-@code{nil}, it specifies the -documentation for @var{new-alias}; otherwise, the alias gets the same -documentation as @var{base-variable} has, if any, unless -@var{base-variable} is itself an alias, in which case @var{new-alias} gets -the documentation of the variable at the end of the chain of aliases. - -This function returns @var{base-variable}. -@end defun - - Variable aliases are convenient for replacing an old name for a -variable with a new name. @code{make-obsolete-variable} declares that -the old name is obsolete and therefore that it may be removed at some -stage in the future. - -@defun make-obsolete-variable obsolete-name current-name &optional when -This function makes the byte-compiler warn that the variable -@var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, it is -the variable's new name; then the warning message says to use -@var{current-name} instead of @var{obsolete-name}. If @var{current-name} -is a string, this is the message and there is no replacement variable. - -If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when the -variable was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a release -number. -@end defun - - You can make two variables synonyms and declare one obsolete at the -same time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-variable-alias}. - -@defmac define-obsolete-variable-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstring -This macro marks the variable @var{obsolete-name} as obsolete and also -makes it an alias for the variable @var{current-name}. It is -equivalent to the following: - -@example -(defvaralias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring}) -(make-obsolete-variable @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when}) -@end example -@end defmac - -@defun indirect-variable variable -This function returns the variable at the end of the chain of aliases -of @var{variable}. If @var{variable} is not a symbol, or if @var{variable} is -not defined as an alias, the function returns @var{variable}. - -This function signals a @code{cyclic-variable-indirection} error if -there is a loop in the chain of symbols. -@end defun - -@example -(defvaralias 'foo 'bar) -(indirect-variable 'foo) - @result{} bar -(indirect-variable 'bar) - @result{} bar -(setq bar 2) -bar - @result{} 2 -@group -foo - @result{} 2 -@end group -(setq foo 0) -bar - @result{} 0 -foo - @result{} 0 -@end example - -@node Variables with Restricted Values -@section Variables with Restricted Values - - Ordinary Lisp variables can be assigned any value that is a valid -Lisp object. However, certain Lisp variables are not defined in Lisp, -but in C. Most of these variables are defined in the C code using -@code{DEFVAR_LISP}. Like variables defined in Lisp, these can take on -any value. However, some variables are defined using -@code{DEFVAR_INT} or @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. @xref{Defining Lisp -variables in C,, Writing Emacs Primitives}, in particular the -description of functions of the type @code{syms_of_@var{filename}}, -for a brief discussion of the C implementation. - - Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} can only take on the values -@code{nil} or @code{t}. Attempting to assign them any other value -will set them to @code{t}: - -@example -(let ((display-hourglass 5)) - display-hourglass) - @result{} t -@end example - -@defvar byte-boolean-vars -This variable holds a list of all variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. -@end defvar - - Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_INT} can only take on integer values. -Attempting to assign them any other value will result in an error: - -@example -(setq window-min-height 5.0) -@error{} Wrong type argument: integerp, 5.0 -@end example - -@ignore - arch-tag: 5ff62c44-2b51-47bb-99d4-fea5aeec5d3e -@end ignore