Mercurial > emacs
changeset 84092:e2f141bee28a
Move here from ../../lispref
| author | Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org> |
|---|---|
| date | Thu, 06 Sep 2007 04:22:29 +0000 |
| parents | d90005c20551 |
| children | 8ed9b6f83833 |
| files | doc/lispref/objects.texi |
| diffstat | 1 files changed, 2036 insertions(+), 0 deletions(-) [+] |
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--- /dev/null Thu Jan 01 00:00:00 1970 +0000 +++ b/doc/lispref/objects.texi Thu Sep 06 04:22:29 2007 +0000 @@ -0,0 +1,2036 @@ +@c -*-texinfo-*- +@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. +@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, +@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. +@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. +@setfilename ../info/objects +@node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top +@chapter Lisp Data Types +@cindex object +@cindex Lisp object +@cindex type +@cindex data type + + A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp +programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of +possible objects. + + Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type +have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. +Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. +Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, +but not for ``the'' type of an object. + +@cindex primitive type + A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from +which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}. +Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These types +include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, +@dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{hash-table}, @dfn{subr}, and +@dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as +@dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) + + Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks +whether an object is a member of that type. + + Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are +@dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the +object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat +it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. + + In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each +variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in +the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp +variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value +you store in it, type and all. (Actually, a small number of Emacs +Lisp variables can only take on values of a certain type. +@xref{Variables with Restricted Values}.) + + This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read +syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how +to use these types can be found in later chapters. + +@menu +* Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. +* Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. +* Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. +* Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. +* Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure. +* Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. +* Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. +@end menu + +@node Printed Representation +@comment node-name, next, previous, up +@section Printed Representation and Read Syntax +@cindex printed representation +@cindex read syntax + + The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the +output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for +that object. Every data type has a unique printed representation. +The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the input accepted +by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that object. This +is not necessarily unique; many kinds of object have more than one +syntax. @xref{Read and Print}. + +@cindex hash notation + In most cases, an object's printed representation is also a read +syntax for the object. However, some types have no read syntax, since +it does not make sense to enter objects of these types as constants in +a Lisp program. These objects are printed in @dfn{hash notation}, +which consists of the characters @samp{#<}, a descriptive string +(typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and a +closing @samp{>}. For example: + +@example +(current-buffer) + @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> +@end example + +@noindent +Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the +error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}. +@kindex invalid-read-syntax + + In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In +Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the +text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to +emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your +mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. + + When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter +first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, +and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, +evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the +Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may +not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of +@code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. + +@node Comments +@comment node-name, next, previous, up +@section Comments +@cindex comments +@cindex @samp{;} in comment + + A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake +of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning +of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it +is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to +the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become +part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp +system. + + The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} +characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary +data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files +(@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. + + @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. + +@node Programming Types +@section Programming Types +@cindex programming types + + There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having +to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The +former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The +latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. + +@menu +* Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. +* Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. +* Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and + control characters. +* Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, + variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. +* Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. +* Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). +* Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. +* String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. +* Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. +* Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. +* Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. +* Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables. +* Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. +* Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another + expression, more fundamental but less pretty. +* Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. +* Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. +* Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used + functions. +@end menu + +@node Integer Type +@subsection Integer Type + + The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}268435456 to +268435455 (29 bits; i.e., +@ifnottex +-2**28 +@end ifnottex +@tex +@math{-2^{28}} +@end tex +to +@ifnottex +2**28 - 1) +@end ifnottex +@tex +@math{2^{28}-1}) +@end tex +on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is +important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check +for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} is @minus{}268435456 on most +machines. + + The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an +optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The +printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a +leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. + +@example +@group +-1 ; @r{The integer -1.} +1 ; @r{The integer 1.} +1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.} ++1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} +536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 29-bit implementation.} +@end group +@end example + + @xref{Numbers}, for more information. + +@node Floating Point Type +@subsection Floating Point Type + + Floating point numbers are the computer equivalent of scientific +notation; you can think of a floating point number as a fraction +together with a power of ten. The precise number of significant +figures and the range of possible exponents is machine-specific; Emacs +uses the C data type @code{double} to store the value, and internally +this records a power of 2 rather than a power of 10. + + The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either +a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or +both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, +@samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point +number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. + + @xref{Numbers}, for more information. + +@node Character Type +@subsection Character Type +@cindex @acronym{ASCII} character codes + + A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In +other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For +example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. + + Individual characters are used occasionally in programs, but it is +more common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed +of characters. @xref{String Type}. + + Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to +the range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that +range are valid character codes. Codes 0 through 127 are +@acronym{ASCII} codes; the rest are non-@acronym{ASCII} +(@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that represent keyboard +input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as +Control, Meta and Shift. + + There are special functions for producing a human-readable textual +description of a character for the sake of messages. @xref{Describing +Characters}. + +@menu +* Basic Char Syntax:: +* General Escape Syntax:: +* Ctl-Char Syntax:: +* Meta-Char Syntax:: +* Other Char Bits:: +@end menu + +@node Basic Char Syntax +@subsubsection Basic Char Syntax +@cindex read syntax for characters +@cindex printed representation for characters +@cindex syntax for characters +@cindex @samp{?} in character constant +@cindex question mark in character constant + + Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of +a character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax +for a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is +not clear programming. You should @emph{always} use the special read +syntax formats that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax +formats start with a question mark. + + The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark +followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character +@kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the +character @kbd{a}. + + For example: + +@example +?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 +@end example + + You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is +often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for +editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\(} is the +way to write the open-paren character. If the character is @samp{\}, +you @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. + +@cindex whitespace +@cindex bell character +@cindex @samp{\a} +@cindex backspace +@cindex @samp{\b} +@cindex tab (ASCII character) +@cindex @samp{\t} +@cindex vertical tab +@cindex @samp{\v} +@cindex formfeed +@cindex @samp{\f} +@cindex newline +@cindex @samp{\n} +@cindex return (ASCII character) +@cindex @samp{\r} +@cindex escape (ASCII character) +@cindex @samp{\e} +@cindex space (ASCII character) +@cindex @samp{\s} + You can express the characters control-g, backspace, tab, newline, +vertical tab, formfeed, space, return, del, and escape as @samp{?\a}, +@samp{?\b}, @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, +@samp{?\s}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\d}, and @samp{?\e}, respectively. +(@samp{?\s} followed by a dash has a different meaning---it applies +the ``super'' modifier to the following character.) Thus, + +@example +?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{control-g, @kbd{C-g}} +?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} +?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} +?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}} +?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} +?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} +?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} +?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} +?\s @result{} 32 ; @r{space character, @key{SPC}} +?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} +?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}} +@end example + +@cindex escape sequence + These sequences which start with backslash are also known as +@dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an +``escape character''; this terminology has nothing to do with the +character @key{ESC}. @samp{\s} is meant for use in character +constants; in string constants, just write the space. + + A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without +a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. +There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, +you should add a backslash before any of the characters +@samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing +Lisp code. You can also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as +space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of +the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t} or @samp{\s}, +instead of an actual whitespace character such as a tab or a space. +(If you do write backslash followed by a space, you should write +an extra space after the character constant to separate it from the +following text.) + +@node General Escape Syntax +@subsubsection General Escape Syntax + + In addition to the specific excape sequences for special important +control characters, Emacs provides general categories of escape syntax +that you can use to specify non-ASCII text characters. + +@cindex unicode character escape + For instance, you can specify characters by their Unicode values. +@code{?\u@var{nnnn}} represents a character that maps to the Unicode +code point @samp{U+@var{nnnn}}. There is a slightly different syntax +for specifying characters with code points above @code{#xFFFF}; +@code{\U00@var{nnnnnn}} represents the character whose Unicode code +point is @samp{U+@var{nnnnnn}}, if such a character is supported by +Emacs. If the corresponding character is not supported, Emacs signals +an error. + + This peculiar and inconvenient syntax was adopted for compatibility +with other programming languages. Unlike some other languages, Emacs +Lisp supports this syntax in only character literals and strings. + +@cindex @samp{\} in character constant +@cindex backslash in character constant +@cindex octal character code + The most general read syntax for a character represents the +character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question +mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three +octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, +@samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the +character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any +@acronym{ASCII} character, it is preferred only when the precise octal +value is more important than the @acronym{ASCII} representation. + +@example +@group +?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 +?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 +@end group +@end example + + To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, +and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex +digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. +Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the +character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8e0} for the Latin-1 character +@iftex +@samp{@`a}. +@end iftex +@ifnottex +@samp{a} with grave accent. +@end ifnottex + +@node Ctl-Char Syntax +@subsubsection Control-Character Syntax + +@cindex control characters + Control characters can be represented using yet another read syntax. +This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the +corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For +example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the +character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. + + Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is +equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: + +@example +?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 +@end example + + In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those +that exist in @acronym{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn +any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character +codes for these non-@acronym{ASCII} control characters include the +@tex +@math{2^{26}} +@end tex +@ifnottex +2**26 +@end ifnottex +bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control +character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@acronym{ASCII} +control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X +and other window systems. + + For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as +the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: + +@example +?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 +@end example + +@noindent +As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character +@kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using +@samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer +to @key{DEL} in this way. + + For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, +we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard +input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not +affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of +people who read it. + +@node Meta-Char Syntax +@subsubsection Meta-Character Syntax + +@cindex meta characters + A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} +modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the +@tex +@math{2^{27}} +@end tex +@ifnottex +2**27 +@end ifnottex +bit set. We use high bits for this and other modifiers to make +possible a wide range of basic character codes. + + In a string, the +@tex +@math{2^{7}} +@end tex +@ifnottex +2**7 +@end ifnottex +bit attached to an @acronym{ASCII} character indicates a meta +character; thus, the meta characters that can fit in a string have +codes in the range from 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the +ordinary @acronym{ASCII} characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, +this convention was used for characters outside of strings as well.) + + The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, +@samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with +octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other +syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, +or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as +@samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. + +@node Other Char Bits +@subsubsection Other Character Modifier Bits + + The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; +for example, @acronym{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} +and @samp{A}. But @acronym{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control +character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the +@tex +@math{2^{25}} +@end tex +@ifnottex +2**25 +@end ifnottex +bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control +character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals +or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the +distinction to the computer in any way. The Lisp syntax for +the shift bit is @samp{\S-}; thus, @samp{?\C-\S-o} or @samp{?\C-\S-O} +represents the shifted-control-o character. + +@cindex hyper characters +@cindex super characters +@cindex alt characters + The X Window System defines three other +@anchor{modifier bits}modifier bits that can be set +in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes +for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. (Case is +significant in these prefixes.) Thus, @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents +@kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. (Note that @samp{\s} with no following @samp{-} +represents the space character.) +@tex +Numerically, the bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}} +for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper. +@end tex +@ifnottex +Numerically, the +bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. +@end ifnottex + +@node Symbol Type +@subsection Symbol Type + + A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The +symbol name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In +ordinary Lisp use, with one single obarray (@pxref{Creating Symbols}, +a symbol's name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. + + A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a +property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp +objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized +reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is +intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, +independently. + + A symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}) is called a +@dfn{keyword symbol}. These symbols automatically act as constants, and +are normally used only by comparing an unknown symbol with a few +specific alternatives. + +@cindex @samp{\} in symbols +@cindex backslash in symbols + A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names +are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters +@samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters +of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. +(If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force +interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}?} are +less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other +characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a +backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in +the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the +backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab +character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the +letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you +must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to +do such a thing. + +@cindex CL note---case of letters +@quotation +@b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always +``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs +Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. +@end quotation + + Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in +the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. +This is not necessary in the fourth example because the rest of the name +makes it invalid as a number. + +@example +@group +foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} +FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} +char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} +@end group +@group +1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} + ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} +@end group +@group +\+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} + ; @r{(not a very readable name).} +@end group +@group +\(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} +@c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the +@c apparent misalignment of the comment. ++-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} + ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} +@end group +@end example + +@ifinfo +@c This uses ``colon'' instead of a literal `:' because Info cannot +@c cope with a `:' in a menu +@cindex @samp{#@var{colon}} read syntax +@end ifinfo +@ifnotinfo +@cindex @samp{#:} read syntax +@end ifnotinfo + Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating +Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the +name of the symbol. + +@node Sequence Type +@subsection Sequence Types + + A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of +elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and +arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also +considered a sequence. + + Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and +bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string +elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t} +or @code{nil}. Char-tables are like vectors except that they are +indexed by any valid character code. The characters in a string can +have text properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text +Properties}), but vectors do not support text properties, even when +their elements happen to be characters. + + Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have +important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all +have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. +Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of +sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract +an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays +Vectors}. + + It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since +sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read +syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. +There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the +same object, @code{nil}. + +@node Cons Cell Type +@subsection Cons Cell and List Types +@cindex address field of register +@cindex decrement field of register +@cindex pointers + + A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the +@sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or +@dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of +this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds, +and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. + +@quotation +A note to C programmers: in Lisp, we do not distinguish between +``holding'' a value and ``pointing to'' the value, because pointers in +Lisp are implicit. +@end quotation + + A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the +@sc{cdr} slot of each cons cell holds either the next cons cell or the +empty list. The empty list is actually the symbol @code{nil}. +@xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because most cons +cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list structure} has +come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. + +@cindex atoms + Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for +``an object which is not a cons cell.'' These objects are called +@dfn{atoms}. + +@cindex parenthesis +@cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists + The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and +consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a +right parenthesis. Here are examples of lists: + +@example +(A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} +() ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} +nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} +("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} +(A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} +(A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} +((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} + ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} +@end example + + Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element +of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The +@sc{car} slot of the cons cell holds the element, and its @sc{cdr} +slot refers to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next +element in the list. The @sc{cdr} slot of the last cons cell is set to +hold @code{nil}. + + The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} derive from the history of Lisp. The +original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which +divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the +``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of +the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract +the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named +for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn was named +for its purpose, the construction of cells. + +@menu +* Box Diagrams:: Drawing pictures of lists. +* Dotted Pair Notation:: A general syntax for cons cells. +* Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. +@end menu + +@node Box Diagrams +@subsubsection Drawing Lists as Box Diagrams +@cindex box diagrams, for lists +@cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists + + A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are +shown as pairs of boxes, like dominoes. (The Lisp reader cannot read +such an illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be +understood by both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be +understood only by humans.) This picture represents the three-element +list @code{(rose violet buttercup)}: + +@example +@group + --- --- --- --- --- --- + | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil + --- --- --- --- --- --- + | | | + | | | + --> rose --> violet --> buttercup +@end group +@end example + + In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can hold or refer to +any Lisp object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow +represents a reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons +cell. + + In this example, the first box, which holds the @sc{car} of the first +cons cell, refers to or ``holds'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second +box, holding the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next +pair of boxes, the second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons +cell is @code{violet}, and its @sc{cdr} is the third cons cell. The +@sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell is @code{nil}. + + Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet +buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: + +@smallexample +@group + --------------- ---------------- ------------------- +| car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | +| rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | +| | | | | | | | | + --------------- ---------------- ------------------- +@end group +@end smallexample + +@cindex @code{nil} as a list +@cindex empty list + A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical +to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol +and a list. + + Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, +depicted with boxes and arrows: + +@example +@group + --- --- --- --- + | | |--> | | |--> nil + --- --- --- --- + | | + | | + --> A --> nil +@end group +@end example + + Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list, +@code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a +two-element list: + +@example +@group + --- --- --- --- --- --- + | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil + --- --- --- --- --- --- + | | | + | | | + | --> oak --> maple + | + | --- --- --- --- + --> | | |--> | | |--> nil + --- --- --- --- + | | + | | + --> pine --> needles +@end group +@end example + + The same list represented in the second box notation looks like this: + +@example +@group + -------------- -------------- -------------- +| car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | +| o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil | +| | | | | | | | | | + -- | --------- -------------- -------------- + | + | + | -------------- ---------------- + | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | + ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil | + | | | | | | + -------------- ---------------- +@end group +@end example + +@node Dotted Pair Notation +@subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation +@cindex dotted pair notation +@cindex @samp{.} in lists + + @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is a general syntax for cons cells that +represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, +@code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is +the object @var{a} and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted +pair notation is more general than list syntax because the @sc{cdr} +does not have to be a list. However, it is more cumbersome in cases +where list syntax would work. In dotted pair notation, the list +@samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 . nil)))}. For +@code{nil}-terminated lists, you can use either notation, but list +notation is usually clearer and more convenient. When printing a +list, the dotted pair notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cons +cell is not a list. + + Here's an example using boxes to illustrate dotted pair notation. +This example shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: + +@example +@group + --- --- + | | |--> violet + --- --- + | + | + --> rose +@end group +@end example + + You can combine dotted pair notation with list notation to represent +conveniently a chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. +You write a dot after the last element of the list, followed by the +@sc{cdr} of the final cons cell. For example, @code{(rose violet +. buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . buttercup))}. +The object looks like this: + +@example +@group + --- --- --- --- + | | |--> | | |--> buttercup + --- --- --- --- + | | + | | + --> rose --> violet +@end group +@end example + + The syntax @code{(rose .@: violet .@: buttercup)} is invalid because +there is nothing that it could mean. If anything, it would say to put +@code{buttercup} in the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell whose @sc{cdr} is already +used for @code{violet}. + + The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))}, +and looks like this: + +@example +@group + --- --- --- --- + | | |--> | | |--> nil + --- --- --- --- + | | + | | + --> rose --> violet +@end group +@end example + + Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} +is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. +@ifnottex +It looks like this: + +@example +@group + --- --- --- --- --- --- + | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil + --- --- --- --- --- --- + | | | + | | | + --> rose --> violet --> buttercup +@end group +@end example +@end ifnottex + +@node Association List Type +@comment node-name, next, previous, up +@subsubsection Association List Type + + An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed +list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is +considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an +@dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored +in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as +stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of +the list. + + For example, + +@example +(setq alist-of-colors + '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) +@end example + +@noindent +sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the +first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. + + @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for +functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of +lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys. + +@node Array Type +@subsection Array Type + + An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for +holding or referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of +memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same +amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires +time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements +at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the +beginning of a list.) + + Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and +char-tables. + + A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of +arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}. +These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer. +Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they +can hold arbitrary objects. + + The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has +index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For +example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The +largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array. +Once an array is created, its length is fixed. + + All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming +languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; +you can get the same effect with nested one-dimensional arrays.) Each +type of array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for +details. + + The array type is a subset of the sequence type, and contains the +string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the char-table +type. + +@node String Type +@subsection String Type + + A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many +purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as +the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent +text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation +of a string returns the same string. + + @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. + +@menu +* Syntax for Strings:: +* Non-ASCII in Strings:: +* Nonprinting Characters:: +* Text Props and Strings:: +@end menu + +@node Syntax for Strings +@subsubsection Syntax for Strings + +@cindex @samp{"} in strings +@cindex double-quote in strings +@cindex @samp{\} in strings +@cindex backslash in strings + The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of +characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a +double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} +is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise, +you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like +this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}. + +@cindex newline in strings + The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; +if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a +character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded +by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader +ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space +@w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. + +@example +"It is useful to include newlines +in documentation strings, +but the newline is \ +ignored if escaped." + @result{} "It is useful to include newlines +in documentation strings, +but the newline is ignored if escaped." +@end example + +@node Non-ASCII in Strings +@subsubsection Non-@acronym{ASCII} Characters in Strings + + You can include a non-@acronym{ASCII} international character in a string +constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations +for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte +and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, +such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as +multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that +makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a +unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the +string unibyte. + + You can also represent a multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its +character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many +digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character codes are all +greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit +terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be +interpreted as a hex digit, write @w{@samp{\ }} (backslash and space) to +terminate the hex escape---for example, @w{@samp{\x8e0\ }} represents +one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. @w{@samp{\ }} in a string +constant is just like backslash-newline; it does not contribute any +character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape. + + You can represent a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character with its +character code, which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to +255 (0377 octal). If you write all such character codes in octal and +the string contains no other characters forcing it to be multibyte, +this produces a unibyte string. However, using any hex escape in a +string (even for an @acronym{ASCII} character) forces the string to be +multibyte. + + You can also specify characters in a string by their numeric values +in Unicode, using @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} (@pxref{Character Type}). + + @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two +text representations. + +@node Nonprinting Characters +@subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings + + You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant +as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a +character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the +nonprinting characters tab and @kbd{C-a}, with commas and spaces between +them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a"}. @xref{Character Type}, for a +description of the read syntax for characters. + + However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash +escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that +a string can hold are the @acronym{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not +distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control characters. + + Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a +string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention +that provides a way to represent meta versions of @acronym{ASCII} +characters in a string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate +a meta character in a string constant, this sets the +@tex +@math{2^{7}} +@end tex +@ifnottex +2**7 +@end ifnottex +bit of the character in the string. If the string is used in +@code{define-key} or @code{lookup-key}, this numeric code is translated +into the equivalent meta character. @xref{Character Type}. + + Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt +modifiers. + +@node Text Props and Strings +@subsubsection Text Properties in Strings + + A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in +addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy +text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no +special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text +properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and +print syntax: + +@example +#("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) +@end example + +@noindent +where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups +of three as follows: + +@example +@var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} +@end example + +@noindent +The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify +a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for +that range. For example, + +@example +#("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) +@end example + +@noindent +represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which +the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value +@code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value +@code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties, so its +property list is @code{nil}. It is not actually necessary to mention +ranges with @code{nil} as the property list, since any characters not +mentioned in any range will default to having no properties.) + +@node Vector Type +@subsection Vector Type + + A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It +takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In +a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of +the element from the beginning of the list.) + + The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square +bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the +read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants +for evaluation. + +@example +[1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} + @result{} [1 "two" (three)] +@end example + + @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. + +@node Char-Table Type +@subsection Char-Table Type + + A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, +indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to +make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information +to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to +inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for +special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for +a whole character set. + + The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector +except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning. + + @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. +Uses of char-tables include: + +@itemize @bullet +@item +Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}). + +@item +Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}). + +@item +Display tables (@pxref{Display Tables}). + +@item +Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}). +@end itemize + +@node Bool-Vector Type +@subsection Bool-Vector Type + + A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that +must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. + + The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except +that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string +constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector +as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which +specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, +and 0 for @code{nil}). The least significant bits of the character +correspond to the lowest indices in the bool-vector. + +@example +(make-bool-vector 3 t) + @result{} #&3"^G" +(make-bool-vector 3 nil) + @result{} #&3"^@@" +@end example + +@noindent +These results make sense, because the binary code for @samp{C-g} is +111 and @samp{C-@@} is the character with code 0. + + If the length is not a multiple of 8, the printed representation +shows extra elements, but these extras really make no difference. For +instance, in the next example, the two bool-vectors are equal, because +only the first 3 bits are used: + +@example +(equal #&3"\377" #&3"\007") + @result{} t +@end example + +@node Hash Table Type +@subsection Hash Table Type + + A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an +alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster. +Hash tables have no read syntax, and print using hash notation. +@xref{Hash Tables}, for functions that operate on hash tables. + +@example +(make-hash-table) + @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980> +@end example + +@node Function Type +@subsection Function Type + + Lisp functions are executable code, just like functions in other +programming languages. In Lisp, unlike most languages, functions are +also Lisp objects. A non-compiled function in Lisp is a lambda +expression: that is, a list whose first element is the symbol +@code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}). + + In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function +without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda +expression can be called as a function even though it has no name; to +emphasize this, we also call it an @dfn{anonymous function} +(@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). A named function in Lisp is just a +symbol with a valid function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining +Functions}). + + Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in +Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain +a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive +functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. + +@node Macro Type +@subsection Macro Type + + A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp +language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with +different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a +list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} +is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. + + Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in +@code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is +a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation +of how to write a macro. + + @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard +Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' +without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. + +@node Primitive Function Type +@subsection Primitive Function Type +@cindex special forms + + A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but +written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also +called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is +derived from ``subroutine.'') Most primitive functions evaluate all +their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does +not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} +(@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill + + It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is +primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive +with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive +function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined +function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code +may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage +redefinition of primitive functions}. + + The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written +in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the +functions written in Lisp. + + Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation +with the name of the subroutine. + +@example +@group +(symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} + ; @r{of the symbol.} + @result{} #<subr car> +(subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} + @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} +@end group +@end example + +@node Byte-Code Type +@subsection Byte-Code Function Type + +The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. +Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, +the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a +function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about +the byte compiler. + +The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function +object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the +opening @samp{[}. + +@node Autoload Type +@subsection Autoload Type + + An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol +@code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol, +where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload +object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code +that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file, +plus some other information about the real definition. + + After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function +definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then +called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of +view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition +in the loaded file. + + An autoload object is usually created with the function +@code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a +symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. + +@node Editing Types +@section Editing Types +@cindex editing types + + The types in the previous section are used for general programming +purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp +provides several additional data types for purposes connected with +editing. + +@menu +* Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. +* Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. +* Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. +* Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. +* Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. +* Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames. +* Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. +* Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. +* Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. +* Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. +@end menu + +@node Buffer Type +@subsection Buffer Type + + A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited +(@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file +(@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other +purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and +therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a +buffer need not be displayed in any window. + + The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not +used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are +different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an +existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting'' +text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result is +an entirely new string object. + + Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} +(@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current +buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current +buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs +functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a +whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions +(@pxref{Text}). + + Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: + +@itemize @bullet +@item +a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); + +@item +a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, + +@item +a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). + +@item +overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). + +@item +text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). +@end itemize + +@noindent +The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually +override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the +behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the +programs. + + A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text +of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. + + Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the +buffer name. + +@example +@group +(current-buffer) + @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> +@end group +@end example + +@node Marker Type +@subsection Marker Type + + A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers +therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the +position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the +position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points +between the same two characters in the buffer. + + Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the +current character position and the name of the buffer. + +@example +@group +(point-marker) + @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> +@end group +@end example + +@xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move +markers. + +@node Window Type +@subsection Window Type + + A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs +uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose +contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear +in one window, no window, or several windows. + + Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window +is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the +cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The +selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not +necessarily the case. + + Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to +one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. + + Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the +window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window +numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed +in any given window can change frequently. + +@example +@group +(selected-window) + @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> +@end group +@end example + + @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. + +@node Frame Type +@subsection Frame Type + + A @dfn{frame} is a screen area that contains one or more Emacs +windows; we also use the term ``frame'' to refer to the Lisp object +that Emacs uses to refer to the screen area. + + Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the +frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame +uniquely). + +@example +@group +(selected-frame) + @result{} #<frame emacs@@psilocin.gnu.org 0xdac80> +@end group +@end example + + @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. + +@node Window Configuration Type +@subsection Window Configuration Type +@cindex window layout in a frame + + A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, +sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the +same arrangement of windows later. + + Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax +looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window +Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to +window configurations. + +@node Frame Configuration Type +@subsection Frame Configuration Type +@cindex screen layout +@cindex window layout, all frames + + A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions, +sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is actually +a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose +@sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist element describes one frame, +which appears as the @sc{car} of that element. + + @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions +related to frame configurations. + +@node Process Type +@subsection Process Type + + The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself +runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a +Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. +Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in +subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. + + An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual +output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals +to the subprocess. + + Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, +giving the name of the process: + +@example +@group +(process-list) + @result{} (#<process shell>) +@end group +@end example + +@xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, +return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output +from processes. + +@node Stream Type +@subsection Stream Type + + A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for +characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as +output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, +strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) +obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output +streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a +@file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. + + The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used +as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable +@code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object +@code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer +(@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo +Area}). + + Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and +print as whatever primitive type they are. + + @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions +related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. + +@node Keymap Type +@subsection Keymap Type + + A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping +controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually +a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. + + @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix +keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. + +@node Overlay Type +@subsection Overlay Type + + An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a +buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and +contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property +names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the +buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read +syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of +positions. + + @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. + +@node Circular Objects +@section Read Syntax for Circular Objects +@cindex circular structure, read syntax +@cindex shared structure, read syntax +@cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax +@cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax + + To represent shared or circular structures within a complex of Lisp +objects, you can use the reader constructs @samp{#@var{n}=} and +@samp{#@var{n}#}. + + Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference; +subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in +another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how +to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element: + +@example +(#1=(a) b #1#) +@end example + +@noindent +This differs from ordinary syntax such as this + +@example +((a) b (a)) +@end example + +@noindent +which would result in a list whose first and third elements +look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference: + +@example +(prog1 nil + (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#))) +(eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) + @result{} t +(setq x '((a) b (a))) +(eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) + @result{} nil +@end example + + You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which +appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example: + +@example +#1=(a #1#) +@end example + +@noindent +This makes a list whose second element is the list itself. +Here's how you can see that it really works: + +@example +(prog1 nil + (setq x '#1=(a #1#))) +(eq x (cadr x)) + @result{} t +@end example + + The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared +structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle} +to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}. + +@node Type Predicates +@section Type Predicates +@cindex type checking +@kindex wrong-type-argument + + The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on +the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could +not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data +types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to +the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to +a type that the function can use. + + All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments +when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an +argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you +pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: + +@example +@group +(+ 2 'a) + @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a +@end group +@end example + +@cindex type predicates +@cindex testing types + If you want your program to handle different types differently, you +must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type +of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a +type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for +combinations of types. + + A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if +the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. +Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type +predicates' names end with @samp{p}. + + Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for +a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. + +@example +(defun add-on (x) + (cond ((symbolp x) + ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. + (setq list (cons x list))) + ((listp x) + ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. + (setq list (append x list))) + (t + ;; We handle only symbols and lists. + (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) +@end example + + Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, +with references to further information. + +@table @code +@item atom +@xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. + +@item arrayp +@xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. + +@item bool-vector-p +@xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}. + +@item bufferp +@xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. + +@item byte-code-function-p +@xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. + +@item case-table-p +@xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}. + +@item char-or-string-p +@xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. + +@item char-table-p +@xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}. + +@item commandp +@xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. + +@item consp +@xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. + +@item display-table-p +@xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}. + +@item floatp +@xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. + +@item frame-configuration-p +@xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}. + +@item frame-live-p +@xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. + +@item framep +@xref{Frames, framep}. + +@item functionp +@xref{Functions, functionp}. + +@item hash-table-p +@xref{Other Hash, hash-table-p}. + +@item integer-or-marker-p +@xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. + +@item integerp +@xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. + +@item keymapp +@xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. + +@item keywordp +@xref{Constant Variables}. + +@item listp +@xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. + +@item markerp +@xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. + +@item wholenump +@xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. + +@item nlistp +@xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. + +@item numberp +@xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. + +@item number-or-marker-p +@xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. + +@item overlayp +@xref{Overlays, overlayp}. + +@item processp +@xref{Processes, processp}. + +@item sequencep +@xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. + +@item stringp +@xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. + +@item subrp +@xref{Function Cells, subrp}. + +@item symbolp +@xref{Symbols, symbolp}. + +@item syntax-table-p +@xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. + +@item user-variable-p +@xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. + +@item vectorp +@xref{Vectors, vectorp}. + +@item window-configuration-p +@xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. + +@item window-live-p +@xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. + +@item windowp +@xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. + +@item booleanp +@xref{nil and t, booleanp}. + +@item string-or-null-p +@xref{Predicates for Strings, string-or-null-p}. +@end table + + The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the +function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and +only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp +Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive +types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than +@code{type-of}. + +@defun type-of object +This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of +@var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol}, +@code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector}, +@code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{hash-table}, @code{subr}, +@code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window}, +@code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or +@code{window-configuration}. + +@example +(type-of 1) + @result{} integer +@group +(type-of 'nil) + @result{} symbol +(type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} + @result{} symbol +(type-of '(x)) + @result{} cons +@end group +@end example +@end defun + +@node Equality Predicates +@section Equality Predicates +@cindex equality + + Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two +objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific +types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter +describing the data type. + +@defun eq object1 object2 +This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are +the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. + +@code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are +integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally +unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are +@code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two +arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily +@code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same +object, meaning that a change in the contents of one will be reflected +by the same change in the contents of the other. + +@example +@group +(eq 'foo 'foo) + @result{} t +@end group + +@group +(eq 456 456) + @result{} t +@end group + +@group +(eq "asdf" "asdf") + @result{} nil +@end group + +@group +(eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) + @result{} nil +@end group + +@group +(setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) + @result{} (1 (2 (3))) +(eq foo foo) + @result{} t +(eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) + @result{} nil +@end group + +@group +(eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) + @result{} nil +@end group + +@group +(eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) + @result{} nil +@end group +@end example + +The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol, distinct +from the symbol that is used if you write the name in a Lisp expression. +Distinct symbols with the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating +Symbols}. + +@example +@group +(eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo) + @result{} nil +@end group +@end example +@end defun + +@defun equal object1 object2 +This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have +equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its +arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical +arguments to see if their elements or contents are the same. So, if two +objects are @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not +always true. + +@example +@group +(equal 'foo 'foo) + @result{} t +@end group + +@group +(equal 456 456) + @result{} t +@end group + +@group +(equal "asdf" "asdf") + @result{} t +@end group +@group +(eq "asdf" "asdf") + @result{} nil +@end group + +@group +(equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) + @result{} t +@end group +@group +(eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) + @result{} nil +@end group + +@group +(equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) + @result{} t +@end group +@group +(eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) + @result{} nil +@end group + +@group +(equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) + @result{} t +@end group + +@group +(eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) + @result{} nil +@end group +@end example + +Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of +text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. For +technical reasons, a unibyte string and a multibyte string are +@code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of +character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through +127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). +(@pxref{Text Representations}). + +@example +@group +(equal "asdf" "ASDF") + @result{} nil +@end group +@end example + +However, two distinct buffers are never considered @code{equal}, even if +their textual contents are the same. +@end defun + + The test for equality is implemented recursively; for example, given +two cons cells @var{x} and @var{y}, @code{(equal @var{x} @var{y})} +returns @code{t} if and only if both the expressions below return +@code{t}: + +@example +(equal (car @var{x}) (car @var{y})) +(equal (cdr @var{x}) (cdr @var{y})) +@end example + +Because of this recursive method, circular lists may therefore cause +infinite recursion (leading to an error). + +@ignore + arch-tag: 9711a66e-4749-4265-9e8c-972d55b67096 +@end ignore