Mercurial > mplayer.hg
annotate DOCS/tech/encoding-tips.txt @ 34648:26eddbd6353a
Code cleanup: Use a stream_control instead of global functions to
get the language associate with a audio or subtitle stream from
the streaming layer.
author | reimar |
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date | Sun, 19 Feb 2012 13:15:41 +0000 |
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2 Some important URLs: | |
3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ | |
17679 | 4 http://mplayerhq.hu/~michael/codec-features.html <- lavc vs. divx5 vs. xvid |
16205 | 5 http://www.ee.oulu.fi/~tuukkat/mplayer/tests/rguyom.ath.cx/ <- lavc benchmarks, options |
6 http://ffdshow.sourceforge.net/tikiwiki/tiki-view_articles.php <- lavc for win32 :) | |
7 http://www.bunkus.org/dvdripping4linux/index.html <- a nice tutorial | |
8 http://forum.zhentarim.net/viewtopic.php?p=237 <- lavc option comparison | |
9 http://www.ee.oulu.fi/~tuukkat/mplayer/tests/readme.html <- series of benchmarks | |
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The thread "Call for video encoding settings" has to be easily found until its infos make it to our docs
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10 http://thread.gmane.org/gmane.comp.video.mencoder.user/1196 <- free codecs shoutout and recommended encoding settings |
9012 | 11 |
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9012 | 13 ================================================================================ |
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14 |
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15 |
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16 FIXING A/V SYNC WHEN ENCODING |
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17 |
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18 I know this is a popular topic on the list, so I thought I'd share a |
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19 few comments on my experience fixing a/v sync. As everyone seems to |
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20 know, mencoder unfortunately doesn't have a -delay option. But that |
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21 doesn't mean you can't fix a/v sync. There are a couple ways to still |
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22 do it. |
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23 |
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24 In example 1, we'll suppose you want to re-encode the audio anyway. |
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25 This will be essential if your source audio isn't mp3, e.g. for DVD's |
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26 or nasty avi files with divx/wma audio. This approach makes things |
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27 much easier. |
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28 |
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29 Step 1: Dump the audio with mplayer -ao pcm -nowaveheader. There are |
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30 various options that can be used to speed this up, most notably -vo |
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31 null, -vc null, and/or -hardframedrop. -benchmark also seemed to help |
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32 in the past. :) |
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33 |
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34 Step 2: Figure out what -delay value syncs the audio right in mplayer. |
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35 If this number is positive, use a command like the following: |
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36 |
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37 dd if=audiodump.wav bs=1764 skip=[delay] | lame -x - out.mp3 |
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38 |
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39 where [delay] is replaced by your delay amount in hundredths of a |
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40 second (1/10 the value you use with mplayer). Otherwise, if delay is |
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41 negative, use a command like this: |
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42 |
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43 ( dd if=/dev/zero bs=1764 skip=[delay] ; cat audiodump.wav ) | lame -x - out.mp3 |
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44 |
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45 Don't include the minus (-) sign in delay. Also, keep in mind you'll |
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46 have to change the 1764 number and provide additional options to lame |
13047 | 47 if your audio stream isn't 44100/16bit/little-endian/stereo. |
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48 |
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49 Step 3: Use mencoder to remux your new mp3 file with the movie: |
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50 |
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51 mencoder -audiofile out.mp3 -oac copy ... |
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52 |
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53 You can either copy video as-is (with -ovc copy) or re-encode it at |
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54 the same time you merge in the audio like this. |
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55 |
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56 Finally, as a variation on this method (makes things a good bit faster |
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57 and doesn't use tons of temporary disk space) you can merge steps 1 |
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58 and 2 by making a named pipe called "audiodump.wav" (type mkfifo |
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59 audiodump.wav) and have mplayer write the audio to it at the same time |
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60 you're running lame to encode. |
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61 |
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62 Now for example 2. This time we won't re-encode audio at all. Just |
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63 dump the mp3 stream from the avi file with mplayer -dumpaudio. Then, |
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64 you have to cut and paste the raw mp3 stream a bit... |
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65 |
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66 If delay is negative, things are easier. Just use lame to encode |
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67 silence for the duration of delay, at the same samplerate and |
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68 samplesize used in your avi file. Then, do something like: |
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69 |
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70 cat silence.mp3 stream.dump > out.mp3 |
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71 mencoder -audiofile out.mp3 -oac copy ... |
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72 |
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73 On the other hand, if delay is positive, you'll need to crop off part |
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74 of the mp3 from the beginning. If it's (at least roughly) CBR this is |
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75 easy -- just take off the first (bitrate*delay/8) bytes of the file. |
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76 You can use the excellent dd tool, or just your favorite |
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77 binary-friendly text editor to do this. Otherwise, you'll have to |
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78 experiment with cutting off different amounts. You can test with |
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79 mplayer -audiofile before actually spending time remuxing/encoding |
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80 with mencoder to make sure you cut the right amount. |
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81 |
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82 I hope this has all been informative. If anyone would like to clean |
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83 this message up a bit and make it into part of the docs, feel free. Of |
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84 course mencoder should eventually just get -delay. :) |
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85 |
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86 Rich |
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87 |
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88 |
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89 ================================================================================ |
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90 |
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91 |
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92 ENCODING QUALITY - OR WHY AUTOMATISM IS BAD. |
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93 |
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94 Hi everyone. |
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95 |
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96 Some days ago someone suggested adding some preset options to mencoder. |
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97 At that time I replied 'don't do that', and now I decided to elaborate |
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98 on that. |
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99 |
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100 Warning: this is rather long, and it involves mathematics. But if you |
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101 don't want to bother with either then why are you encoding in the |
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102 first place? Go do something different! |
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103 |
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104 The good news is: it's all about the bpp (bits per pixel). |
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105 |
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106 The bad news is: it's not THAT easy ;) |
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107 |
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108 This mail is about encoding a DVD to MPEG4. It's about the video |
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109 quality, not (primarily) about the audio quality or some other fancy |
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110 things like subtitles. |
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111 |
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112 The first step is to encode the audio. Why? Well if you encode the |
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113 audio prior to the video you'll have to make the video fit onto one |
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114 (or two) CD(s). That way you can use oggenc's quality based encoding |
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115 mode which is much more sophisticated than its ABR based mode. |
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116 |
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117 After encoding the audio you have a certain amount of space left to |
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118 fill with video. Let's assume the audio takes 60M (no problem with |
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119 Vorbis), and you aim at a 700M CD. This leaves you 640M for the video. |
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120 Let's further assume that the video is 100 minutes or 6000 seconds |
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121 long, encoded at 25fps (those nasty NTSC fps values give me |
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122 headaches. Adjust to your needs, of course!). This leaves you with |
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123 a video bitrate of: |
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124 |
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125 $videosize * 8 |
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126 $videobitrate = -------------- |
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127 $length * 1000 |
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128 |
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129 $videosize in bytes, $length in seconds, $videobitrate in kbit/s. |
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130 In my example I end up with $videobitrate = 895. |
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131 |
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132 And now comes the question: how do I chose my encoding parameters |
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133 so that the results will be good? First let's take a look at a |
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134 typical mencoder line: |
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135 |
10405 | 136 mencoder dvd://1 -o /dev/null -oac copy -ovc lavc \ |
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137 -lavcopts vcodec=mpeg4:vbitrate=1000:vhq:vqmin=2:\ |
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138 vlelim=-4:vcelim=9:lumi_mask=0.05:dark_mask=0.01:vpass=1 \ |
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139 -vf crop=716:572:2:2,scale=640:480 |
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140 |
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141 Phew, all those parameters! Which ones should I change? NEVER leave |
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142 out 'vhq'. Never ever. 'vqmin=2' is always good if you aim for sane |
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143 settings - like 'normal length' movies on one CD, 'very long movies' |
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144 on two CDs and so on. vcodec=mpeg4 is mandatory. |
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145 |
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146 The 'vlelim=-4:vcelim=9:lumi_mask=0.05:dark_mask=0.01' are parameters |
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147 suggested by D Richard Felker for non-animated movies, and they |
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148 improve quality a bit. |
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149 |
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150 But the two things that have the most influence on quality are |
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151 vbitate and scale. Why? Because both together tell the codec how |
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152 many bits it may spend on each frame for each bit: and this is |
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153 the 'bpp' value (bits per pixel). It's simply defined as |
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154 |
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155 $videobitrate * 1000 |
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156 $bpp = ----------------------- |
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157 $width * $height * $fps |
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158 |
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159 I've attached a small Perl script that calculates the $bpp for |
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160 a movie. You'll have to give it four parameters: |
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161 a) the cropped but unscaled resolution (use '-vf cropdetect'), |
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162 b) the encoded aspect ratio. All DVDs come at 720x576 but contain |
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163 a flag that tells the player wether it should display the DVD at |
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164 an aspect ratio of 4/3 (1.333) or at 16/9 (1.777). Have a look |
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165 at mplayer's output - there's something about 'prescaling'. That's |
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166 what you are looking for. |
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167 c) the video bitrate in kbit/s and |
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168 d) the fps. |
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169 |
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170 In my example the command line and calcbpp.pl's output would look |
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171 like this (warning - long lines ahead): |
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172 |
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173 mosu@anakin:~$ ./calcbpp.pl 720x440 16/9 896 25 |
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174 Prescaled picture: 1023x440, AR 2.33 |
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175 720x304, diff 5, new AR 2.37, AR error 1.74% scale=720:304 bpp: 0.164 |
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176 704x304, diff -1, new AR 2.32, AR error 0.50% scale=704:304 bpp: 0.167 |
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177 688x288, diff 8, new AR 2.39, AR error 2.58% scale=688:288 bpp: 0.181 |
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178 672x288, diff 1, new AR 2.33, AR error 0.26% scale=672:288 bpp: 0.185 |
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179 656x288, diff -6, new AR 2.28, AR error 2.17% scale=656:288 bpp: 0.190 |
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180 640x272, diff 3, new AR 2.35, AR error 1.09% scale=640:272 bpp: 0.206 |
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181 624x272, diff -4, new AR 2.29, AR error 1.45% scale=624:272 bpp: 0.211 |
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182 608x256, diff 5, new AR 2.38, AR error 2.01% scale=608:256 bpp: 0.230 |
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183 592x256, diff -2, new AR 2.31, AR error 0.64% scale=592:256 bpp: 0.236 |
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184 576x240, diff 8, new AR 2.40, AR error 3.03% scale=576:240 bpp: 0.259 |
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185 560x240, diff 1, new AR 2.33, AR error 0.26% scale=560:240 bpp: 0.267 |
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186 544x240, diff -6, new AR 2.27, AR error 2.67% scale=544:240 bpp: 0.275 |
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187 528x224, diff 3, new AR 2.36, AR error 1.27% scale=528:224 bpp: 0.303 |
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188 512x224, diff -4, new AR 2.29, AR error 1.82% scale=512:224 bpp: 0.312 |
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189 496x208, diff 5, new AR 2.38, AR error 2.40% scale=496:208 bpp: 0.347 |
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190 480x208, diff -2, new AR 2.31, AR error 0.85% scale=480:208 bpp: 0.359 |
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191 464x192, diff 7, new AR 2.42, AR error 3.70% scale=464:192 bpp: 0.402 |
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192 448x192, diff 1, new AR 2.33, AR error 0.26% scale=448:192 bpp: 0.417 |
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193 432x192, diff -6, new AR 2.25, AR error 3.43% scale=432:192 bpp: 0.432 |
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194 416x176, diff 3, new AR 2.36, AR error 1.54% scale=416:176 bpp: 0.490 |
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195 400x176, diff -4, new AR 2.27, AR error 2.40% scale=400:176 bpp: 0.509 |
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196 384x160, diff 5, new AR 2.40, AR error 3.03% scale=384:160 bpp: 0.583 |
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197 368x160, diff -2, new AR 2.30, AR error 1.19% scale=368:160 bpp: 0.609 |
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198 352x144, diff 7, new AR 2.44, AR error 4.79% scale=352:144 bpp: 0.707 |
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199 336x144, diff 0, new AR 2.33, AR error 0.26% scale=336:144 bpp: 0.741 |
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200 320x144, diff -6, new AR 2.22, AR error 4.73% scale=320:144 bpp: 0.778 |
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201 |
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202 A word for the $bpp. For a fictional movie which is only black and |
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203 white: if you have a $bpp of 1 then the movie would be stored |
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204 uncompressed :) For a real life movie with 24bit color depth you |
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205 need compression of course. And the $bpp can be used to make the |
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206 decision easier. |
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207 |
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208 As you can see the resolutions suggested by the script are all |
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209 dividable by 16. This will make the aspect ratio slightly wrong, |
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210 but no one will notice. |
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211 |
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212 Now if you want to decide which resolution (and scaling parameters) |
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213 to chose you can do that by looking at the $bpp: |
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214 |
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215 < 0.10: don't do it. Please. I beg you! |
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216 < 0.15: It will look bad. |
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217 < 0.20: You will notice blocks, but it will look ok. |
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218 < 0.25: It will look really good. |
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219 > 0.25: It won't really improve visually. |
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220 > 0.30: Don't do that either - try a bigger resolution instead. |
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221 |
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222 Of course these values are not absolutes! For movies with really lots |
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223 of black areas 0.15 may look very good. Action movies with only high |
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224 motion scenes on the other hand may not look perfect at 0.25. But these |
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225 values give you a great idea about which resolution to chose. |
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226 |
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227 I see a lot of people always using 512 for the width and scaling |
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228 the height accordingly. For my (real-world-)example this would be |
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229 simply a waste of bandwidth. The encoder would probably not even |
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230 need the full bitrate, and the resulting file would be smaller |
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231 than my targetted 700M. |
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232 |
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233 After encoding you'll do your 'quality check'. First fire up the movie |
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234 and see whether it looks good to you or not. But you can also do a |
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235 more 'scientific' analysis. The second Perl script I attached counts |
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236 the quantizers used for the encoding. Simply call it with |
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237 |
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238 countquant.pl < divx2pass.log |
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239 |
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240 It will print out which quantizer was used how often. If you see that |
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241 e.g. the lowest quantizer (vqmin=2) gets used for > 95% of the frames |
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242 then you can safely increase your picture size. |
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243 |
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244 > The "counting the quantesizer"-thing could improve the quality of |
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245 > full automated scripts, as I understand ? |
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246 |
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247 Yes, the log file analysis can be used be tools to automatically adjust |
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248 the scaling parameters (if you'd do that you'd end up with a three-pass |
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249 encoding for the video only ;)), but it can also provide answers for |
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250 you as a human. From time to time there's a question like 'hey, |
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251 mencoder creates files that are too small! I specified this bitrate and |
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252 the resulting file is 50megs short of the target file size!'. The |
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253 reason is probably that the codec already uses the minimum quantizer |
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254 for nearly all frames so it simply does not need more bits. A quick |
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255 glance at the distribution of the quantizers can be enlightening. |
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256 |
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257 Another thing is that q=2 and q=3 look really good while the 'bigger' |
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258 quantizers really lose quality. So if your distribution shows the |
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259 majority of quantizers at 4 and above then you should probably decrease |
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260 the resolution (you'll definitly see block artefacts). |
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261 |
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262 |
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263 Well... Several people will probably disagree with me on certain |
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264 points here, especially when it comes down to hard values (like the |
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265 $bpp categories and the percentage of the quantizers used). But |
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266 the idea is still valid. |
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267 |
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268 And that's why I think that there should NOT be presets in mencoder |
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269 like the presets lame knows. 'Good quality' or 'perfect quality' are |
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270 ALWAYS relative. They always depend on a person's personal preferences. |
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271 If you want good quality then spend some time reading and - more |
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272 important - understanding what steps are involved in video encoding. |
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273 You cannot do it without mathematics. Oh well, you can, but you'll |
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274 end up with movies that could certainly look better. |
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275 |
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276 Now please shoot me if you have any complaints ;) |
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277 |
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278 -- |
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279 ==> Ciao, Mosu (Moritz Bunkus) |
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280 |
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281 =========== |
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282 ANOTHER APPROACH: BITS PER BLOCK: |
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283 |
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284 > $videobitrate * 1000 |
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285 > $bpp = ----------------------- |
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286 > $width * $height * $fps |
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287 |
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288 Well, I came to similar equation going through different route. Only I |
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289 didn't use bits per pixel, in my case it was bits per block (BPB). The block |
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290 is 16x16 because lots of software depends on video width/height being |
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291 divisable by 16. And because I didn't like this 0.2 bit per pixel, when |
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292 bit is quite atomic ;) |
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293 |
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294 So the equation was something like: |
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295 |
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296 bitrate |
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297 bpb = ----------------- |
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298 fps * ((width * height) / (16 * 16)) |
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299 |
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300 (width and height are from destination video size, and bitrate is in |
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301 bits (i.e. 900kbps is 900000)) |
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302 |
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303 This way it apeared that the minimum bits per block is ~40, very |
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304 good results are with ~50, and everything above 60 is a waste of bandwidth. |
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305 And what's actually funny is that it was independent of codec used. The |
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306 results were exactly the same, whether I used DIV3 (with tricky nandub's |
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307 magick), ffmpeg odivx, DivX5 on Windows or Xvid. |
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308 |
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309 Surprisingly there is one advantage of using nandub-DIV3 for bitrate |
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310 starved encoding: ringing almost never apears this way. |
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311 |
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312 But I also found out, that the quality/BPB isn't constant for |
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313 drastically different resolutions. Smaller picture (like MPEG1 sizes) |
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314 need more BPB to look good than say typical MPEG2 resolutions. |
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315 |
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316 Robert |
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317 |
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318 |
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319 =========== |
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320 DON'T SCALE DOWN TOO MUCH |
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321 |
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322 Sometimes I found that encoding to y-scaled only DVD qualty (ie 704 x |
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323 288 for a 2.85 film) gives better visual quality than a scaled-down |
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324 version even if the quantizers are significantly higher than for the |
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325 scaled-down version. |
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326 Keep in mind that blocs, fuzzy parts and generaly mpeg artefacts in a |
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327 704x288 image will be harder to spot in full-screen mode than on a |
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328 512x208 image. In fact I've see example where the same movie looks |
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329 better compressed to 704x288 with an average weighted quantizer of |
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330 ~3 than the same movie scaled to 576x240 with an average weighted |
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331 quantizer of 2.4. |
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332 Btw, a print of the weighted average quantizer would be nice in |
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333 countquant.pl :) |
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334 |
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335 Another point in favor of not trying to scale down too much : on hard |
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336 scaled-down movies, the MPEG codec will need to compress relatively |
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337 high frequencies rather than low frequencies and it doesn't like that |
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338 at all. You will see less and less returns while you scale down and |
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339 scale down again in desesperate need of some bandwidth :) |
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340 |
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341 In my experience, don't try to go below a width of 576 without closely |
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342 watching what's going on. |
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343 |
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344 -- |
23734 | 345 RĂ©mi |
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346 |
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347 =========== |
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348 TIPS FOR ENCODING |
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349 |
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350 That being said, with video you have some tradeoffs you can make. Most |
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351 people seem to encode with really basic options, but if you play with |
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352 single coefficient elimination and luma masking settings, you can save lots |
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353 of bits, resulting in lower quantizers, which means less blockiness and |
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354 less ugly noise (ringing) around sharp borders. The tradeoff, however, is |
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355 that you'll get some "muddiness" in some parts of the image. Play around |
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356 with the settings and see for yourself. The options I typically use for |
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357 (non-animated) movies are: |
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358 |
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359 vlelim=-4 |
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360 vcelim=9 |
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361 lumi_mask=0.05 |
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362 dark_mask=0.01 |
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363 |
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364 If things look too muddy, making the numbers closer to 0. For anime and |
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365 other animation, the above recommendations may not be so good. |
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366 |
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367 Another option that may be useful is allowing four motion vectors per |
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368 macroblock (v4mv). This will increase encoding time quite a bit, and |
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369 last I checked it wasn't compatible with B frames. AFAIK, specifying |
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370 v4mv should never reduce quality, but it may prevent some old junky |
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371 versions of DivX from decoding it (can anyone conform?). Another issue |
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372 might be increased cpu time needed for decoding (again, can anyone |
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373 confirm?). |
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374 |
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375 To get more fair distribution of bits between low-detail and |
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376 high-detail scenes, you should probably try increasing vqcomp from the |
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377 default (0.5) to something in the range 0.6-0.8. |
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378 |
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379 Of course you also want to make sure you crop ALL of the black border and |
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380 any half-black pixels at the edge of the image, and make sure the final |
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381 image dimensions after cropping and scaling are multiples of 16. Failing to |
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382 do so will drastically reduce quality. |
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383 |
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384 Finally, if you can't seem to get good results, you can try scaling the |
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385 movie down a bit smaller or applying a weak gaussian blur to reduce the |
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386 amount of detail. |
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387 |
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388 Now, my personal success story! I just recently managed to fit a beautiful |
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389 encode of Kundun (well over 2 hours long, but not too many high-motion |
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390 scenes) on one cd at 640x304, with 66 kbit/sec abr ogg audio, using the |
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391 options I described above. So, IMHO it's definitely possible to get very |
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392 good results with libavcodec (certainly MUCH better than all the idiot |
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393 "release groups" using DivX3 make), as long as you take some time to play |
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394 around with the options. |
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395 |
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396 |
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397 Rich |
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398 |
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399 ============ |
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400 ABOUT VLELIM, VCELIM, LUMI_MASK AND DARK_MASK PART I: LUMA & CHROMA |
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401 |
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402 |
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403 The l/c in vlelim and vcelim stands for luma (brightness plane) and chroma |
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404 (color planes). These are encoded separately in all mpeg-like algorithms. |
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405 Anyway, the idea behind these options is (at least from what I understand) |
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406 to use some good heuristics to determine when the change in a block is less |
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407 than the threshold you specify, and in such a case, to just encode the |
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408 block as "no change". This saves bits and perhaps speeds up encoding. Using |
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409 a negative value for either one means the same thing as the corresponding |
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410 positive value, but the DC coefficient is also considered. Unfortunately |
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411 I'm not familiar enough with the mpeg terminology to know what this means |
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412 (my first guess would be that it's the constant term from the DCT), but it |
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413 probably makes the encoder less likely to apply single coefficient |
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414 elimination in cases where it would look bad. It's presumably recommended |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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415 to use negative values for luma (which is more noticable) and positive for |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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416 chroma. |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
417 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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418 The other options -- lumi_mask and dark_mask -- control how the quantizer |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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419 is adjusted for really dark or bright regions of the picture. You're |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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420 probably already at least a bit familiar with the concept of quantizers |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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421 (qscale, lower = more precision, higher quality, but more bits needed to |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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422 encode). What not everyone seems to know is that the quantizer you see |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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423 (e.g. in the 2pass logs) is just an average for the whole frame, and lower |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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424 or higher quantizers may in fact be used in parts of the picture with more |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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425 or less detail. Increasing the values of lumi_mask and dark_mask will cause |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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426 lavc to aggressively increase the quantizer in very dark or very bright |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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427 regions of the picture (which are presumably not as noticable to the human |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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428 eye) in order to save bits for use elsewhere. |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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429 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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430 Rich |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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431 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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432 =================== |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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433 ABOUT VLELIM, VCELIM, LUMI_MASK AND DARK_MASK PART II: VQSCALE |
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arpi
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434 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
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435 OK, a quick explanation. The quantizer you set with vqscale=N is the |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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436 per-frame quantizer parameter (aka qp). However, with mpeg4 it's |
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arpi
parents:
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437 allowed (and recommended!) for the encoder to vary the quantizer on a |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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438 per-macroblock (mb) basis (as I understand it, macroblocks are 16x16 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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439 regions composed of 4 8x8 luma blocks and 2 8x8 chroma blocks, u and |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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440 v). To do this, lavc scores each mb with a complexity value and |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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441 weights the quantizer accordingly. However, you can control this |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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442 behavior somewhat with scplx_mask, tcplx_mask, dark_mask, and |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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443 lumi_mask. |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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444 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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445 scplx_mask -- raise quantizer on mb's with lots of spacial complexity. |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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446 Spacial complexity is measured by variance of the texture (this is |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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447 just the actual image for I blocks and the difference from the |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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448 previous coded frame for P blocks). |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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449 |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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450 tcplx_mask -- raise quantizer on mb's with lots of temporal |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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451 complexity. Temporal complexity is measured according to motion |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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452 vectors. |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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453 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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454 dark_mask -- raise quantizer on very dark mb's. |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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455 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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456 lumi_mask -- raise quantizer on very bright mb's. |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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457 Somewhere around 0-0.15 is a safe range for these values, IMHO. You |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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458 might try as high as 0.25 or 0.3. You should probably never go over |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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459 0.5 or so. |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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460 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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461 Now, about naq. When you adjust the quantizers on a per-mb basis like |
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arpi
parents:
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462 this (called adaptive quantization), you might decrease or (more |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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463 likely) increase the average quantizer used, so that it no longer |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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464 matches the requested average quantizer (qp) for the frame. This will |
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arpi
parents:
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465 result in weird things happening with the bitrate, at least from my |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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466 experience. What naq does is "normalize adaptive quantization". That |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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467 is, after the above masking parameters are applied on a per-mb basis, |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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468 the quantizers of all the blocks are rescaled so that the average |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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469 stays fixed at the desired qp. |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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470 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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471 So, if I used vqscale=4 with naq and fairly large values for the |
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arpi
parents:
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472 masking parameters, I might be likely to see lots of frames using |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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473 qscale 2,3,4,5,6,7 across different macroblocks as needed, but with |
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arpi
parents:
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474 the average sticking around 4. However, I haven't actually tested such |
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arpi
parents:
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475 a setup yet, so it's just speculation right now. |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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476 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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477 Have fun playing around with it. |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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478 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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479 Rich |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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480 |
11423
dffc970f1922
FIXING A/V SYNC WHEN ENCODING, from an old mail by Rich:
diego
parents:
11271
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481 |
dffc970f1922
FIXING A/V SYNC WHEN ENCODING, from an old mail by Rich:
diego
parents:
11271
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482 ================================================================================ |
dffc970f1922
FIXING A/V SYNC WHEN ENCODING, from an old mail by Rich:
diego
parents:
11271
diff
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|
483 |
dffc970f1922
FIXING A/V SYNC WHEN ENCODING, from an old mail by Rich:
diego
parents:
11271
diff
changeset
|
484 |
8463
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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485 TIPS FOR ENCODING OLD BLACK & WHITE MOVIES: |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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486 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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487 I found myself that 4:3 B&W old movies are very hard to compress well. In |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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488 addition to the 4:3 aspect ratio which eats lots of bits, those movies are |
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arpi
parents:
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489 typically very "noisy", which doesn't help at all. Anyway : |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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490 |
29263
0f1b5b68af32
whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
26908
diff
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491 > After a few tries I am |
0f1b5b68af32
whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
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492 > still a little bit disappointed with the video quality. Since it is a |
0f1b5b68af32
whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
26908
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493 > "dark" movies, there is a lot of black on the pictures, and on the |
0f1b5b68af32
whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
26908
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494 > encoded avi I can see a lot of annoying "mpeg squares". I am using |
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whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
26908
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495 > avifile codec, but the best I think is to give you the command line I |
0f1b5b68af32
whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
26908
diff
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496 > used to encode a preview of the result: |
8463
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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497 |
29263
0f1b5b68af32
whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
26908
diff
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498 > |
0f1b5b68af32
whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
26908
diff
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499 > First pass: |
0f1b5b68af32
whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
26908
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500 > mencoder TITLE01-ANGLE1.VOB -oac copy -ovc lavc -lavcopts |
0f1b5b68af32
whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
26908
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501 > vcodec=mpeg4:vhq:vpass=1:vbitrate=800:keyint=48 -ofps 23.976 -npp lb |
0f1b5b68af32
whitespace cosmetics: Remove all trailing whitespace.
diego
parents:
26908
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|
502 > -ss 2:00 -endpos 0:30 -vf scale -zoom -xy 640 -o movie.avi |
8463
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arpi
parents:
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503 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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504 1) keyint=48 is way too low. The default value is 250, this is in *frames* |
13022 | 505 not seconds. Keyframes are significantly larger than P or B frames, so the |
506 less keyframes you have, better the overall movie will be. (huh, like Yoda | |
8463
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arpi
parents:
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507 I speak ;). Try keyint=300 or 350. Don't go beyond that if you want |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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508 relatively precise seeking. |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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509 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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510 2) you may want to play with vlelim and vcelim options. This can gives you |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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511 a significant "quality" boost. Try one of these couples : |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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512 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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513 vlelim=-2:vcelim=3 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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514 vlelim=-3:vcelim=5 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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515 vlelim=-4:vcelim=7 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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516 (and yes, there's a minus) |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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517 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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518 3) crop & rescale the movie before passing it to the codec. First crop the |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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519 movie to not encode black bars if there's any. For a 1h40mn movie |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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520 compressed to a 700 MB file, I would try something between 512x384 and |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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521 480x320. Don't go below that if you want something relatively sharp when |
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arpi
parents:
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522 viewed fullscreen. |
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arpi
parents:
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523 |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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524 4) I would recommend using the Ogg Vorbis audio codec with the .ogm |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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525 container format. Ogg Vorbis compress audio better than MP3. On a typical |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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526 old, mono-only audio stream, a 45 kbits/s Vorbis stream is ok. How to |
10432 | 527 extract & compress an audio stream from a ripped DVD (mplayer dvd://1 |
8463
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arpi
parents:
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528 -dumpstream) : |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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529 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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530 rm -f audiodump.pcm ; mkfifo -m 600 audiodump.pcm |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
531 mplayer -quiet -vc null -vo null -aid 128 -ao pcm -nowaveheader stream.dump & |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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532 oggenc --raw --raw-bits=16 --raw-chan=2 --raw-rate=48000 -q 1 -o audio-us.ogg |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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533 +audiodump.pcm & |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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534 wait |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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535 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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536 For a nice set of utilities to manager the .ogm format, see Moritz Bunkus' |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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|
537 ogmtools (google is your friend). |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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|
538 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
539 5) use the "v4mv" option. This could gives you a few more bits at the |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
540 expense of a slightly longer encoding. This is a "lossless" option, I mean |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
541 with this option you don't throw away some video information, it just |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
542 selects a more precise motion estimation method. Be warned that on some |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
543 very un-typical scenes this option may gives you a longer file than |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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544 without, although it's very rare and on a whole film I think it's always a |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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545 win. |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
546 |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
547 6) you can try the new luminance & darkness masking code. Play |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
548 with the "lumi_mask" and "dark_mask" options. I would recommend using |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
549 something like : |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
550 lumi_mask=0.07:dark_mask=0.10:naq: |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
551 lumi_mask=0.10:dark_mask=0.12:naq: |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
552 lumi_mask=0.12:dark_mask=0.15:naq |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
diff
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|
553 lumi_mask=0.13:dark_mask=0.16:naq: |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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|
554 Be warned that these options are really experimental and the result |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
arpi
parents:
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|
555 could be very good or very bad depending on your visualization device |
e421b4ab7815
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arpi
parents:
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556 (computer CRT, TV or TFT screen). Don't push too hard these options. |
e421b4ab7815
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arpi
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557 |
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558 > Second pass: |
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559 > the same with vpass=2 |
8463
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560 |
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561 7) I've found that lavc gives better results when the first pass is done |
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arpi
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562 with "vqscale=2" instead of a target bitrate. The statistics collected |
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arpi
parents:
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563 seems to be more precise. YMMV. |
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arpi
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564 |
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565 > I am new to mencoder, so please tell me any idea you have even if it |
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566 > obvious. I also tried the "gray" option of lavc, to encode B&W only, |
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567 > but strangely it gives me "pink" squares from time to time. |
8463
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568 |
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569 Yes, I've seen that too. Playing the resulting file with "-lavdopts gray" |
e421b4ab7815
encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
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570 fix the problem but it's not very nice ... |
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571 |
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572 > So if you could tell me what option of mencoder or lavc I should be |
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573 > looking at to lower the number of "squares" on the image, it would be |
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574 > great. The version of mencoder i use is 0.90pre8 on a macos x PPC |
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575 > platform. I guess I would have the same problem by encoding anime |
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576 > movies, where there are a lot of region of the image with the same |
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577 > color. So if you managed to solve this problem... |
8463
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578 |
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579 You could also try the "mpeg_quant" flag. It selects a different set of |
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580 quantizers and produce somewhat sharper pictures and less blocks on large |
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arpi
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581 zones with the same or similar luminance, at the expense of some bits. |
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582 |
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583 > This is completely off topic, but do you know how I can create good |
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584 > subtitles from vobsub subtitles ? I checked the -dumpmpsub option of |
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585 > mplayer, but is there a way to do it really fast (ie without having to |
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586 > play the whole movie) ? |
8463
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587 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
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588 I didn't find a way under *nix to produce reasonably good text subtitles |
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589 from vobsubs. OCR *nix softwares seems either not suited to the task, not |
e421b4ab7815
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arpi
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590 powerful enough or both. I'm extracting the vobsub subtitles and simply use |
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591 them with the .ogm |
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592 |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
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593 / .avi : |
10405 | 594 1) rip the DVD to harddisk with "mplayer dvd://1 -dumpstream" |
8463
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595 2) mount the DVD and copy the .ifo file |
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596 2) extract all vobsubs to one single file with something like : |
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parents:
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597 |
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598 for f in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ; do \ |
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encoding tips - collected from mplayer-users list mailings by
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599 mencoder -ovc copy -oac copy -o /dev/null -sid $f -vobsubout sous-titres |
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arpi
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600 +-vobsuboutindex $f -ifo vts_01_0.ifo stream.dump |
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arpi
parents:
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601 done |
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602 |
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603 (and yes, I've a DVD with 12 subtitles) |
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604 -- |
23734 | 605 RĂ©mi |
8463
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|
606 |
11423
dffc970f1922
FIXING A/V SYNC WHEN ENCODING, from an old mail by Rich:
diego
parents:
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|
607 |
dffc970f1922
FIXING A/V SYNC WHEN ENCODING, from an old mail by Rich:
diego
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608 ================================================================================ |
dffc970f1922
FIXING A/V SYNC WHEN ENCODING, from an old mail by Rich:
diego
parents:
11271
diff
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|
609 |
8463
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610 |
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611 TIPS FOR SMOKE & CLOUDS |
8463
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612 |
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613 Q: I'm trying to encode Dante's Peak and I'm having problems with clouds, |
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614 fog and smoke: They don't look fine (they look very bad if I watch the |
25744 | 615 movie in TV-out). There are some artifacts, white clouds looks as snow |
8463
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616 mountains, there are things likes hip in the colors so one can see frontier |
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617 curves between white and light gray and dark gray ... (I don't know if you |
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618 can understand me, I want to mean that the colors don't change smoothly) |
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619 In particular I'm using vqscale=2:vhq:v4mv |
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620 |
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621 A: Try adding "vqcomp=0.7:vqblur=0.2:mpeg_quant" to lavcopts. |
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622 |
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623 Q: I tried your suggestion and it improved the image a little ... but not |
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624 enough. I was playing with different options and I couldn't find the way. |
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625 I suppose that the vob is not so good (watching it in TV trough the |
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626 computer looks better than my encoding, but it isn't a lot of better). |
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627 |
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628 A: Yes, those scenes with qscale=2 looks terrible :-( |
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629 |
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630 Try with vqmin=1 in addition to mpeg_quant:vlelim=-4:vcelim=-7 (and maybe |
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631 with "-sws 10 -ssf ls=1" to sharpen a bit the image) and read about vqmin=1 |
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arpi
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|
632 in DOCS/tech/libavc-options.txt. |
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633 |
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634 If after the whole movie is encoded you still see the same problem, it will |
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635 means that the second pass didn't picked-up q=1 for this scene. Force q=1 |
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arpi
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636 with the "vrc_override" option. |
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637 |
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638 Q: By the way, is there a special difficult in encode clouds or smoke? |
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639 |
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640 A: I would say it depends on the sharpness of these clouds / smokes and the |
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arpi
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641 fact that they are mostly black/white/grey or colored. The codec will do |
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642 the right thing with vqmin=2 for example on a cigarette smoke (sharp) or on |
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643 a red/yellow cloud (explosion, cloud of fire). But may not with a grey and |
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644 very fuzzy cloud like in the chocolat scene. Note that I don't know exactly |
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645 why ;) |
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646 |
23734 | 647 A = RĂ©mi |
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648 |
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649 |
15015
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Technical explanation of how to use vqcomp, and why, featured by Loren Merritt
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650 ================================================================================ |
23237af42335
Technical explanation of how to use vqcomp, and why, featured by Loren Merritt
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651 |
23237af42335
Technical explanation of how to use vqcomp, and why, featured by Loren Merritt
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652 |
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Technical explanation of how to use vqcomp, and why, featured by Loren Merritt
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653 TIPS FOR TWEAKING RATECONTROL |
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654 |
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655 (For the purpose of this explanation, consider "2nd pass" to be any beyond |
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656 the 1st. The algorithm is run only on P-frames; I- and B-frames use QPs |
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657 based on the adjacent P. While x264's 2pass ratecontrol is based on lavc's, |
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658 it has diverged somewhat and not all of this is valid for x264.) |
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659 |
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660 Consider the default ratecontrol equation in lavc: "tex^qComp". |
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661 At the beginning of the 2nd pass, rc_eq is evaluated for each frame, and |
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662 the result is the number of bits allocated to that frame (multiplied by |
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663 some constant as needed to match the total requested bitrate). |
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664 |
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665 "tex" is the complexity of a frame, i.e. the estimated number of bits it |
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666 would take to encode at a given quantizer. (If the 1st pass was CQP and |
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667 not turbo, then we know tex exactly. Otherwise it is calculated by |
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668 multiplying the 1st pass's bits by the QP of that frame. But that's not |
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669 why CQP is potentially good; more on that later.) |
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670 "qComp" is just a constant. It has no effect outside the rc_eq, and is |
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671 directly set by the vqcomp parameter. |
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672 |
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673 If vqcomp=1, then rc_eq=tex^1=tex, so 2pass allocates to each frame the |
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674 number of bits needed to encode them all at the same QP. |
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675 If vqcomp=0, then rc_eq=tex^0=1, so 2pass allocates the same number of |
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676 bits to each frame, i.e. CBR. (Actually, this is worse than 1pass CBR in |
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677 terms of quality; CBR can vary within its allowed buffer size, while |
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678 vqcomp=0 tries to make each frame exactly the same size.) |
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679 If vqcomp=0.5, then rc_eq=sqrt(tex), so the allocation is somewhere |
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680 between CBR and CQP. High complexity frames get somewhat lower quality |
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681 than low complexity, but still more bits. |
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682 |
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683 While the actual selection of a good value of vqcomp is experimental, the |
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684 following underlying factors determine the result: |
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685 Arguing towards CQP: You want the movie to be somewhere approaching |
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686 constant quality; oscillating quality is even more annoying than constant |
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687 low quality. (However, constant quality does not mean constant PSNR nor |
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688 constant QP. Details are less noticeable in high-motion scenes, so you can |
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689 get away with somewhat higher QP in high-complexity frames for the same |
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690 perceived quality.) |
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691 Arguing towards CBR: You get more quality per bit if you spend those bits |
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692 in frames where motion compensation works well (which tends to be |
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693 correlated with "tex"): A given artifact may stick around several seconds |
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694 in a low-motion scene, and you only have to fix it in one frame to improve |
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695 the quality of the whole sequence. |
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696 |
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697 Now for why the 1st pass ratecontrol method matters: |
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698 The number of bits at constant quant is as good a measure of complexity as |
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699 any other simple formula for the purpose of allocating bits. But it's not |
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700 perfect for predicting which QP will produce the desired number of bits. |
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701 Bits are approximately inversely proportional to QP, but the exact scaling |
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702 is non-linear, and depends on the amount of detail/noise, the complexity of |
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703 motion, the quality of previous frames, and other stuff not measured by the |
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704 ratecontrol. So it predicts best when the QP used for a given frame in the |
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705 2nd pass is close to the QP used in the 1st pass. When the prediction is |
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706 wrong, lavc needs to distribute the surplus or deficit of bits among future |
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707 frames, which means that they too deviate from the planned distribution. |
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708 Obviously, with vqcomp=1 you can get the 1st pass QPs very close by using |
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709 CQP, and with vqcomp=0 a CBR 1st pass is very close. But with vqcomp=0.5 |
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710 it's more ambiguous. The accepted wisdom is that CBR is better for |
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711 vqcomp=0.5, mostly because you then don't have to guess a QP in advance. |
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712 But with vqcomp=0.6 or 0.7, the 2nd pass QPs vary less, so a CQP 1st pass |
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713 (with the right QP) will be a better predictor than CBR. |
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714 |
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715 To make it more confusing, 1pass CBR uses the same rc_eq with a different |
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716 meaning. In CBR, we don't have a real encode to estimate from, so "tex" is |
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717 calculated from the full-pixel precision motion-compensation residual. |
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718 While the number of bits allocated to a given frame is decided by the rc_eq |
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719 just like in 2nd pass, the target bitrate is constant (instead of being the |
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720 sum of per-frame rc_eq values). So the scaling factor (which is constant in |
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721 2nd pass) now varies in order to keep the local average bitrate near the |
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722 CBR target. So vqcomp does affect CBR, though it only determines the local |
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723 allocation of bits, not the long-term allocation. |
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724 |
16205 | 725 --Loren Merritt |