Mercurial > hgbook
annotate en/concepts.tex @ 112:2fcead053b7a
More. Concept. Fun.
author | Bryan O'Sullivan <bos@serpentine.com> |
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date | Mon, 13 Nov 2006 13:21:29 -0800 |
parents | 34b8b7a15ea1 |
children | a0f57b3e677e |
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1 \chapter{Behind the scenes} |
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2 \label{chap:concepts} |
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3 |
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4 Unlike many revision control systems, the concepts upon which |
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5 Mercurial is built are simple enough that it's easy to understand how |
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6 the software really works. Knowing this certainly isn't necessary, |
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7 but I find it useful to have a ``mental model'' of what's going on. |
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8 |
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9 This understanding gives me confidence that Mercurial has been |
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10 carefully designed to be both \emph{safe} and \emph{efficient}. And |
111 | 11 just as importantly, if it's easy for me to retain a good idea of what |
12 the software is doing when I perform a revision control task, I'm less | |
13 likely to be surprised by its behaviour. | |
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112 | 15 In this chapter, we'll initially cover the core concepts behind |
16 Mercurial's design, then continue to discuss some of the interesting | |
17 details of its implementation. | |
18 | |
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19 \section{Mercurial's historical record} |
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20 |
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21 \subsection{Tracking the history of a single file} |
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22 |
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23 When Mercurial tracks modifications to a file, it stores the history |
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24 of that file in a metadata object called a \emph{filelog}. Each entry |
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25 in the filelog contains enough information to reconstruct one revision |
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26 of the file that is being tracked. Filelogs are stored as files in |
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27 the \sdirname{.hg/data} directory. A filelog contains two kinds of |
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28 information: revision data, and an index to help Mercurial to find a |
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29 revision efficiently. |
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30 |
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31 A file that is large, or has a lot of history, has its filelog stored |
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32 in separate data (``\texttt{.d}'' suffix) and index (``\texttt{.i}'' |
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33 suffix) files. For small files without much history, the revision |
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34 data and index are combined in a single ``\texttt{.i}'' file. The |
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35 correspondence between a file in the working directory and the filelog |
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36 that tracks its history in the repository is illustrated in |
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37 figure~\ref{fig:concepts:filelog}. |
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38 |
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39 \begin{figure}[ht] |
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40 \centering |
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41 \grafix{filelog} |
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42 \caption{Relationships between files in working directory and |
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43 filelogs in repository} |
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44 \label{fig:concepts:filelog} |
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45 \end{figure} |
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46 |
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47 \subsection{Managing tracked files} |
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48 |
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49 Mercurial uses a structure called a \emph{manifest} to collect |
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50 together information about the files that it tracks. Each entry in |
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51 the manifest contains information about the files present in a single |
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52 changeset. An entry records which files are present in the changeset, |
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53 the revision of each file, and a few other pieces of file metadata. |
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54 |
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55 \subsection{Recording changeset information} |
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56 |
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57 The \emph{changelog} contains information about each changeset. Each |
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58 revision records who committed a change, the changeset comment, other |
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59 pieces of changeset-related information, and the revision of the |
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60 manifest to use. |
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61 |
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62 \subsection{Relationships between revisions} |
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63 |
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64 Within a changelog, a manifest, or a filelog, each revision stores a |
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65 pointer to its immediate parent (or to its two parents, if it's a |
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66 merge revision). As I mentioned above, there are also relationships |
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67 between revisions \emph{across} these structures, and they are |
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68 hierarchical in nature. |
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69 |
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70 For every changeset in a repository, there is exactly one revision |
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71 stored in the changelog. Each revision of the changelog contains a |
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72 pointer to a single revision of the manifest. A revision of the |
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73 manifest stores a pointer to a single revision of each filelog tracked |
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74 when that changeset was created. These relationships are illustrated |
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75 in figure~\ref{fig:concepts:metadata}. |
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76 |
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77 \begin{figure}[ht] |
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78 \centering |
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79 \grafix{metadata} |
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80 \caption{Metadata relationships} |
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81 \label{fig:concepts:metadata} |
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82 \end{figure} |
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83 |
110 | 84 As the illustration shows, there is \emph{not} a ``one to one'' |
85 relationship between revisions in the changelog, manifest, or filelog. | |
86 If the manifest hasn't changed between two changesets, the changelog | |
87 entries for those changesets will point to the same revision of the | |
88 manifest. If a file that Mercurial tracks hasn't changed between two | |
89 changesets, the entry for that file in the two revisions of the | |
90 manifest will point to the same revision of its filelog. | |
109
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91 |
110 | 92 \section{Safe, efficient storage} |
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93 |
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94 The underpinnings of changelogs, manifests, and filelogs are provided |
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95 by a single structure called the \emph{revlog}. |
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96 |
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97 \subsection{Efficient storage} |
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98 |
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99 The revlog provides efficient storage of revisions using a |
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100 \emph{delta} mechanism. Instead of storing a complete copy of a file |
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101 for each revision, it stores the changes needed to transform an older |
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102 revision into the new revision. For many kinds of file data, these |
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103 deltas are typically a fraction of a percent of the size of a full |
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104 copy of a file. |
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105 |
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106 Some obsolete revision control systems can only work with deltas of |
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107 text files. They must either store binary files as complete snapshots |
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108 or encoded into a text representation, both of which are wasteful |
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109 approaches. Mercurial can efficiently handle deltas of files with |
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110 arbitrary binary contents; it doesn't need to treat text as special. |
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111 |
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112 \subsection{Safe operation} |
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113 |
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114 Mercurial only ever \emph{appends} data to the end of a revlog file. |
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115 It never modifies a section of a file after it has written it. This |
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116 is both more robust and efficient than schemes that need to modify or |
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117 rewrite data. |
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118 |
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119 In addition, Mercurial treats every write as part of a |
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120 \emph{transaction} that can span a number of files. A transaction is |
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121 \emph{atomic}: either the entire transaction succeeds and its effects |
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122 are all visible to readers in one go, or the whole thing is undone. |
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123 This guarantee of atomicity means that if you're running two copies of |
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124 Mercurial, where one is reading data and one is writing it, the reader |
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125 will never see a partially written result that might confuse it. |
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126 |
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127 The fact that Mercurial only appends to files makes it easier to |
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128 provide this transactional guarantee. The easier it is to do stuff |
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129 like this, the more confident you should be that it's done correctly. |
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130 |
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131 \subsection{Fast retrieval} |
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132 |
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133 Mercurial cleverly avoids a pitfall common to all earlier |
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134 revision control systems: the problem of \emph{inefficient retrieval}. |
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135 Most revision control systems store the contents of a revision as an |
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136 incremental series of modifications against a ``snapshot''. To |
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137 reconstruct a specific revision, you must first read the snapshot, and |
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138 then every one of the revisions between the snapshot and your target |
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139 revision. The more history that a file accumulates, the more |
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140 revisions you must read, hence the longer it takes to reconstruct a |
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141 particular revision. |
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142 |
110 | 143 \begin{figure}[ht] |
144 \centering | |
145 \grafix{snapshot} | |
146 \caption{Snapshot of a revlog, with incremental deltas} | |
147 \label{fig:concepts:snapshot} | |
148 \end{figure} | |
149 | |
109
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150 The innovation that Mercurial applies to this problem is simple but |
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151 effective. Once the cumulative amount of delta information stored |
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152 since the last snapshot exceeds a fixed threshold, it stores a new |
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153 snapshot (compressed, of course), instead of another delta. This |
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154 makes it possible to reconstruct \emph{any} revision of a file |
110 | 155 quickly. This approach works so well that it has since been copied by |
156 several other revision control systems. | |
157 | |
158 Figure~\ref{fig:concepts:snapshot} illustrates the idea. In an entry | |
159 in a revlog's index file, Mercurial stores the range of entries from | |
160 the data file that it must read to reconstruct a particular revision. | |
109
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161 |
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162 \subsubsection{Aside: the influence of video compression} |
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163 |
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164 If you're familiar with video compression or have ever watched a TV |
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165 feed through a digital cable or satellite service, you may know that |
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166 most video compression schemes store each frame of video as a delta |
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167 against its predecessor frame. In addition, these schemes use |
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168 ``lossy'' compression techniques to increase the compression ratio, so |
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169 visual errors accumulate over the course of a number of inter-frame |
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170 deltas. |
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171 |
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172 Because it's possible for a video stream to ``drop out'' occasionally |
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173 due to signal glitches, and to limit the accumulation of artefacts |
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174 introduced by the lossy compression process, video encoders |
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175 periodically insert a complete frame (called a ``key frame'') into the |
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176 video stream; the next delta is generated against that frame. This |
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177 means that if the video signal gets interrupted, it will resume once |
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178 the next key frame is received. Also, the accumulation of encoding |
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179 errors restarts anew with each key frame. |
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180 |
112 | 181 \subsection{Identification and strong integrity} |
110 | 182 |
183 Along with delta or snapshot information, a revlog entry contains a | |
184 cryptographic hash of the data that it represents. This makes it | |
185 difficult to forge the contents of a revision, and easy to detect | |
112 | 186 accidental corruption. |
187 | |
188 Hashes provide more than a mere check against corruption; they are | |
189 used as the identifiers for revisions. The changeset identification | |
111 | 190 hashes that you see as an end user are from revisions of the |
112 | 191 changelog. Although filelogs and the manifest also use hashes, |
192 Mercurial only uses these behind the scenes. | |
110 | 193 |
112 | 194 Mercurial verifies that hashes are correct when it retrieves file |
195 revisions and when it pulls changes from another repository. If it | |
196 encounters an integrity problem, it will complain and stop whatever | |
197 it's doing. | |
110 | 198 |
199 In addition to the effect it has on retrieval efficiency, Mercurial's | |
200 use of periodic snapshots makes it more robust against partial data | |
201 corruption. If a revlog becomes partly corrupted due to a hardware | |
202 error or system bug, it's often possible to reconstruct some or most | |
203 revisions from the uncorrupted sections of the revlog, both before and | |
204 after the corrupted section. This would not be possible with a | |
205 delta-only storage model. | |
206 | |
207 \section{The working directory} | |
208 | |
209 Mercurial's good ideas are not confined to the repository; it also | |
210 needs to manage the working directory. The \emph{dirstate} contains | |
211 Mercurial's knowledge of the working directory. This details which | |
212 revision(s) the working directory is updated to, and all files that | |
213 Mercurial is tracking in the working directory. | |
214 | |
215 Because Mercurial doesn't force you to tell it when you're modifying a | |
216 file, it uses the dirstate to store some extra information so it can | |
217 determine efficiently whether you have modified a file. For each file | |
218 in the working directory, it stores the time that it last modified the | |
219 file itself, and the size of the file at that time. | |
220 | |
221 When Mercurial is checking the states of files in the working | |
222 directory, it first checks a file's modification time. If that has | |
223 not changed, the file must not have been modified. If the file's size | |
224 has changed, the file must have been modified. If the modification | |
225 time has changed, but the size has not, only then does Mercurial need | |
226 to read the actual contents of the file to see if they've changed. | |
227 Storing these few extra pieces of information dramatically reduces the | |
228 amount of data that Mercurial needs to read, which yields large | |
229 performance improvements compared to other revision control systems. | |
230 | |
112 | 231 \section{Revision history, branching, |
232 and merging} | |
233 | |
234 Every entry in a Mercurial revlog knows the identity of its immediate | |
235 ancestor revision, usually referred to as its \emph{parent}. In fact, | |
236 a revision contains room for not one parent, but two. Mercurial uses | |
237 a special hash, called the ``null ID'', to represent the idea ``there | |
238 is no parent here''. This hash is simply a string of zeroes. | |
239 | |
240 In figure~\ref{fig:concepts:revlog}, you can see an example of the | |
241 conceptual structure of a revlog. Filelogs, manifests, and changelogs | |
242 all have this same structure; they differ only in the kind of data | |
243 stored in each delta or snapshot. | |
244 | |
245 The first revision in a revlog (at the bottom of the image) has the | |
246 null ID in both of its parent slots. For a ``normal'' revision, its | |
247 first parent slot contains the ID of its parent revision, and its | |
248 second contains the null ID, indicating that the revision has only one | |
249 real parent. Any two revisions that have the same parent ID are | |
250 branches. A revision that represents a merge between branches has two | |
251 normal revision IDs in its parent slots. | |
252 | |
253 \begin{figure}[ht] | |
254 \centering | |
255 \grafix{revlog} | |
256 \caption{} | |
257 \label{fig:concepts:revlog} | |
258 \end{figure} | |
259 | |
110 | 260 \section{Other interesting design features} |
261 | |
262 In the sections above, I've tried to highlight some of the most | |
263 important aspects of Mercurial's design, to illustrate that it pays | |
264 careful attention to reliability and performance. However, the | |
265 attention to detail doesn't stop there. There are a number of other | |
266 aspects of Mercurial's construction that I personally find | |
267 interesting. I'll detail a few of them here, separate from the ``big | |
268 ticket'' items above, so that if you're interested, you can gain a | |
269 better idea of the amount of thinking that goes into a well-designed | |
270 system. | |
271 | |
109
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272 \subsection{Clever compression} |
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273 |
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274 When appropriate, Mercurial will store both snapshots and deltas in |
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275 compressed form. It does this by always \emph{trying to} compress a |
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276 snapshot or delta, but only storing the compressed version if it's |
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277 smaller than the uncompressed version. |
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278 |
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279 This means that Mercurial does ``the right thing'' when storing a file |
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280 whose native form is compressed, such as a \texttt{zip} archive or a |
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281 JPEG image. When these types of files are compressed a second time, |
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282 the resulting file is usually bigger than the once-compressed form, |
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283 and so Mercurial will store the plain \texttt{zip} or JPEG. |
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284 |
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285 Deltas between revisions of a compressed file are usually larger than |
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286 snapshots of the file, and Mercurial again does ``the right thing'' in |
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287 these cases. It finds that such a delta exceeds the threshold at |
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288 which it should store a complete snapshot of the file, so it stores |
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289 the snapshot, again saving space compared to a naive delta-only |
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290 approach. |
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291 |
110 | 292 \subsubsection{Network recompression} |
109
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293 |
110 | 294 When storing revisions on disk, Mercurial uses the ``deflate'' |
295 compression algorithm (the same one used by the popular \texttt{zip} | |
296 archive format), which balances good speed with a respectable | |
297 compression ratio. However, when transmitting revision data over a | |
298 network connection, Mercurial uncompresses the compressed revision | |
299 data. | |
109
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300 |
110 | 301 If the connection is over HTTP, Mercurial recompresses the entire |
302 stream of data using a compression algorithm that gives a etter | |
303 compression ratio (the Burrows-Wheeler algorithm from the widely used | |
304 \texttt{bzip2} compression package). This combination of algorithm | |
305 and compression of the entire stream (instead of a revision at a time) | |
306 substantially reduces the number of bytes to be transferred, yielding | |
307 better network performance over almost all kinds of network. | |
109
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308 |
110 | 309 (If the connection is over \command{ssh}, Mercurial \emph{doesn't} |
310 recompress the stream, because \command{ssh} can already do this | |
311 itself.) | |
109
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312 |
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313 \subsection{Read/write ordering and atomicity} |
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314 |
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315 Appending to files isn't the whole story when it comes to guaranteeing |
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316 that a reader won't see a partial write. If you recall |
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317 figure~\ref{fig:concepts:metadata}, revisions in the changelog point to |
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318 revisions in the manifest, and revisions in the manifest point to |
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319 revisions in filelogs. This hierarchy is deliberate. |
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320 |
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321 A writer starts a transaction by writing filelog and manifest data, |
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322 and doesn't write any changelog data until those are finished. A |
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323 reader starts by reading changelog data, then manifest data, followed |
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324 by filelog data. |
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325 |
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326 Since the writer has always finished writing filelog and manifest data |
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327 before it writes to the changelog, a reader will never read a pointer |
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328 to a partially written manifest revision from the changelog, and it will |
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329 never read a pointer to a partially written filelog revision from the |
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330 manifest. |
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331 |
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332 \subsection{Concurrent access} |
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333 |
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334 The read/write ordering and atomicity guarantees mean that Mercurial |
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335 never needs to \emph{lock} a repository when it's reading data, even |
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336 if the repository is being written to while the read is occurring. |
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337 This has a big effect on scalability; you can have an arbitrary number |
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338 of Mercurial processes safely reading data from a repository safely |
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339 all at once, no matter whether it's being written to or not. |
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340 |
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341 The lockless nature of reading means that if you're sharing a |
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342 repository on a multi-user system, you don't need to grant other local |
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343 users permission to \emph{write} to your repository in order for them |
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344 to be able to clone it or pull changes from it; they only need |
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345 \emph{read} permission. (This is \emph{not} a common feature among |
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346 revision control systems, so don't take it for granted! Most require |
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347 readers to be able to lock a repository to access it safely, and this |
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348 requires write permission on at least one directory, which of course |
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349 makes for all kinds of nasty and annoying security and administrative |
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350 problems.) |
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351 |
110 | 352 Mercurial uses locks to ensure that only one process can write to a |
353 repository at a time (the locking mechanism is safe even over | |
354 filesystems that are notoriously hostile to locking, such as NFS). If | |
355 a repository is locked, a writer will wait for a while to retry if the | |
356 repository becomes unlocked, but if the repository remains locked for | |
357 too long, the process attempting to write will time out after a while. | |
358 This means that your daily automated scripts won't get stuck forever | |
359 and pile up if a system crashes unnoticed, for example. (Yes, the | |
360 timeout is configurable, from zero to infinity.) | |
361 | |
362 \subsubsection{Safe dirstate access} | |
363 | |
364 As with revision data, Mercurial doesn't take a lock to read the | |
365 dirstate file; it does acquire a lock to write it. To avoid the | |
366 possibility of reading a partially written copy of the dirstate file, | |
367 Mercurial writes to a file with a unique name in the same directory as | |
368 the dirstate file, then renames the temporary file atomically to | |
369 \filename{dirstate}. The file named \filename{dirstate} is thus | |
370 guaranteed to be complete, not partially written. | |
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111 | 372 \subsection{Avoiding seeks} |
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111 | 374 Critical to Mercurial's performance is the avoidance of seeks of the |
375 disk head, since any seek is far more expensive than even a | |
376 comparatively large read operation. | |
377 | |
378 This is why, for example, the dirstate is stored in a single file. If | |
379 there were a dirstate file per directory that Mercurial tracked, the | |
380 disk would seek once per directory. Instead, Mercurial reads the | |
381 entire single dirstate file in one step. | |
382 | |
383 Mercurial also uses a ``copy on write'' scheme when cloning a | |
384 repository on local storage. Instead of copying every revlog file | |
385 from the old repository into the new repository, it makes a ``hard | |
386 link'', which is a shorthand way to say ``these two names point to the | |
387 same file''. When Mercurial is about to write to one of a revlog's | |
388 files, it checks to see if the number of names pointing at the file is | |
389 greater than one. If it is, more than one repository is using the | |
390 file, so Mercurial makes a new copy of the file that is private to | |
391 this repository. | |
392 | |
393 A few revision control developers have pointed out that this idea of | |
394 making a complete private copy of a file is not very efficient in its | |
395 use of storage. While this is true, storage is cheap, and this method | |
396 gives the highest performance while deferring most book-keeping to the | |
397 operating system. An alternative scheme would most likely reduce | |
398 performance and increase the complexity of the software, each of which | |
399 is much more important to the ``feel'' of day-to-day use. | |
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